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FOREST PROTECTION 



Guide to Lectures 

Delivered at the Biltmore Forest School 

by 

C. A. SCHENCK, Ph.D. 

Director 



1909 



FOREST PROTECTION 



OISCARDED B^ 



Guide to Lectures 
Delivered at the Biltmore Forest School 

Cf A^i^SCHENGE, Ph. D. \<kC:X 

Director. 



1909 



The Inland Press, 
Asheville, N. C. 



PREFACE 

This book on "forest protection" is being printed, pre-eminently, for 
the benefit of the students attending the Biltmore Forest School. 

In American forestry, the most important duty of the forester consists 
in the suppression of forest fires. 

If forest fires were prevented, a second growth would follow invariably 
in the wake of a first growth removed by the forester or by the lumberman; 
and the problem of forest conservation would solve itself. 

If forest fires were prevented, a second growth would have a definite, 
prospective value; and it would be worth while to treat it sylviculturally. 

If forest fires were prevented, our investm^ents made in merchantable 
timber would be more secure; and there would be a lesser inducement for 
the rapid conversion of timber into cash. 

The issue of forest fires stand paramount in all forest protection. Com- 
pared with this issue, the other topics treated in the following pages dwindle 
down to insignificance. 

I write this with a knowledge of the fact that the leading timber firms 
in this country place an estimate of less than 1% on their annual losses of 
timber due to fires: 

These firms are operating close to their holdings; and if a tract is killed 
by fire the operations are swung over into the burned section as speedily 
as possible; and the salvage may amount to 99% of the timber burned. 

These firms do not pay any attention, in their estimate, to the "lu- 
crum cessans," nor to the prospective value of inferior trees, poles, saplings 
and seedlings. 

The "prospective forest" is the forest of the future; and this forest 
is annihilated by the fires. 

Merchantable trees of immediate value cannot be killed any "more 
dead" by fires, nor by insects, nor by strom, than by the legitimate use of 
axe and saw. 

Where the means of transportation are ready, the damage inflicted 
upon the forest and upon its owner by catastrophies may be reduced to a 
minimum. 

In writing the paragraph on "forest insects," I have availed myself 
of many hints obtained from Dr. A. D. Hopkins. My own knowledge of 
forest insects amounts to little; and on the basis of past experience, I strongly 
recommend to all foresters a "lack of self-reliance" in forest entomological 
questions. Consult Dr. Hopkins before spending any money for fighting 
insects I 

Mr. C. D. Couden has revised and rewritten my manuscript on forest 
insects, eliminating many mistakes made by a layman. My sincerest thanks 
are tendered to him herewith. 



4 FOREST PROTECTION 

Whatever I know of American tree diseases and of timber diseases in- 
duced by fungi, I have learned from Dr. Hermann von Schrenk. The 
errors only which may have crept into the 7th paragraph of this book deal- 
ing with fungus diseases are my own. 

The graduates of the Biltmore Forest School, and all other gentle readers 
are earnestly requested to assist me in the elimination of errors and mis- 
takes contained in this book on forest protection. 

Biltmore, N. C, October 1, 1909. C. A. Schenck. 



FOREST PROTECTION 



DEFINITION AND SYNOPSIS. 

The term "Forest Protection" comprises all the acts of the forest-owner 
made with a view to the safety of his investments. 

Forest Protection as a branch of science is divided into the following 
parts and chapters: 

PART A: Protection Against Organic Nature. 
Chapter I : Protection against man. 
Chapter II: Protection against animals. 
Chapter III: Protection against plants. 

PART B: Protection Against Inorganic Nature. 

Chapter I: Protection against adverse climatic influences. 

A— Heat. 

B— Frost. 

C — Snow and sleet. 
Chapter II: Protection against storm, erosion, sanddrifts, noxious 
gases. 

D — Wind and storm. 

E — Erosion. 

F — Shifting sand. 

G — Noxious gases. 

The English literature on Forest Protection consists, in the main, of 
the following: 

Dr. Wm. Schlich, Vol. IV. of "Manual of Forestry." 

Dr. A. D. Hopkins, Bulletins of the West Virginia Agricultviral 
Station. Bulletins of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology. 

Tubeuf and Smith, "Diseases of Plants." 

Dr. H. von Schrenk, bulletins of the Shaw School of Botany, bulle- 
tins of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry and of the U. S. Bureau 
of Plant Industry. 

Lectures on game protection, on protection of forest-roads and forest- 
railroads, on protection of forest industries — of vital interest to the owner 
of forests — are not included in the following paragraphs. The author's 
excuse for this omission lies in the word "precedent." 



FOREST PROTECTION 



CONTENTS IN PARAGRAPHS. 



Par. 1. Protection against adverse possession. 

Par. 2. Protection against forest fires. 

Par. 3. Protection against domestic animals on pasture. 

Par. 4. Protection against wild vertebrates. 

Par. 5. Protection against insects. 

Par. 6. Protection against weeds. 

Par. 7. Protection against fungi. 

Par. 8. Protection against parasites other than fungi. 

Par. 9. Protection against frost. 

Par. 10. Protection against heat. 

Par. 11. Protection against snow and sleet. 

Par. 12. Protection against wind and storm. 

Par. 13. Protection against erosion. 

Par. 14. Protection against shifting sand. 

Par. 15. Protection against noxious gases. 



FOREST PROTECTION 



Part A : Protection Against Organic Nature 

CHAPTER 1. PROTECTION AGAINST MAN. 



Par. 1. Protection Against Adverse Possession. 

Adverse possession and its consequences are best prevented by con- 
tinuous, open and notorious possession of every acre of land comprised in 
the property. To that end, a 'proper survey is necessary, coupled with de- 
markation of the boundary lines by proper marks or by fences; of the cor- 
ners by proper corner trees and witnesses. 

Wooden stakes as corner signs are objectionable; iron "T" stakes, 5' 
long, costing 35 to 60 cents apiece, are extensively used at Biltmore. 

The exactness of the survey depends on the acre-value of the forest. 

The lines of the property, established by the demarkation, must be 
maintained by continuous patrolling. The posting of trespass notices and 
the trimming of bushes along the lines are advisable, if not legally required. 
Foremen, tenants and guards should know the lines perfectly so as to be 
witnesses available in lawsuits. 

In the case of disputes with neighbors, refuge to "processioning pro- 
ceedings" is taken. 

The forester should endeavor to straighten the lines of the forest by 
purchase or exchange, and to substitute natural boundary lines for arti- 
ficial lines. 

Squatters, with the help of state grants or other colorable title, — or 
without title but with distinct boundary lines and with distinct possession — 
become owners within a few years. 

In real estate law, the written word is decisive rather than the gist 
of a contract. 

The lessee surrenders to the lessor all claim to the property on which 
he lives. 

All deeds pertaining to a piece of property shoiild be placed on pub- 
lic record. 

Suit should be brought in the federal courts, preferably. 

In the distant future, the increased value 'of real property will force 
the states to "legalize" the individual holdings after careful survey. 

The administering forester must command a good knowledge of real 
estate law; he should leave no means untried to ferret out the trespasser 
and to secure his conviction. 

The most important laws in this connection are those concerning 
Destruction of corner marlis 
Larceny of wood and timber 
Entering land when forbidden 
Arrest 
Proceedings at court. 



8 FOREST PROTECTION 

Par. 2. Protection Against Forest Fires. 

Protection against forest fires means, practically, protection against 
man who, intentionally or carelessly, causes the very large majority of all 
forest fires. Fires due to lightning are of rare occurrence in the East. 

A: Causes of Fires: 

I : — Fires are intentionally set : — 

To improve pasture. 

To imcover minerals for prospecting. 

To gather chestnuts. 

To force the owner of woodlands to purchase interior holdings. 

To chase deer or turkeys. 

To drive bees or coons from trees. 

To improve the huckleberry crop. 

To facilitate access to thick woods. 

To get a job at stopping fires. 

To surround farms, pastures or forests with a safety belt of burned 
land. 

To mask trespass by fishing and himting. 

To take revenge for supposed acts of animosity. 
II: — Fires carelessly started result from: — • 

Locomotive sparks and cinders. 

Sparks from forest cabins. 

Campers' and himters' fires. 

Charcoal burning, rock blasting, tobacco smoking, burning ad- 
joining fields or pastures. 

B: Kinds op Forest Fires: 

Fires are distinguished as: — 
Surface fires. 
Underground fires. 
Top fires. 

C: Damage by Fires: 

The damage done by forest fires consists of the loss of present values 
or of the loss of prospective values; seedlings are killed; saplings burst open; 
stool shoots replace seedling growth. 

A heavy growth of weeds, frequently following in the wake of forest 
fires, prevents natural or artificial regeneration. A deterioration of pro- 
ductiveness is the natural consequence of deteriorated soil, due to destruc- 
tion of humus. 

Trees weakened by fires cease to resist the attacks of insects and fimgi. 
Trees burned at the stump are subject to breakage by sleet or snow. 



FOREST PROTECTION 9 

D: The Factors Influencing the Amount of Damage are: — 
The age of the woods. 
The aspect of the slope. 

The severity of the wind, and the uphill or downhill direction of the wind. 
The season of the year and the preceding duration of drought. 
The silvicultural system. 

The amount of debris and hxmius on the ground. 
The species forming the forest (conifers have less reproductive power; 

light demanders usually have fireproof armor of bark; thin or thick 

layer of sap wood.) 

E: The Measures Taken Against Forest Fires are Either op a Pre- 
ventive OR OF A Remedial Nature: 

I. — Preventive measures: — 

Education of the people and of the legislature through the news- 
papers and from the pulpit. 
Friendly relations with all neighbors. 
Securing proper fire laws and publishing notices giving the essence 

of such laws. 
The purchase of all interior holdings. 
Settlements of tenants within the forest. 
Telephone connection in the forest. 

Fire lanes (in India up to 400' wide) kept clear from inflammable 
material. Such lanes exist along all European railroads. In 
America the main advantage of a fire lane lies in the possi- 
bility of back firing with the lane as a basis. 
Trails or roads, further strips of pasture along the ridges and strips 
of farmland along the creeks form the most useful fire lanes. 
Burning all around the forest at the beginning of the dangerous 

season. 
Burning debris after lumbering— a measure of doubted expediency. 
Removing debris from the close proximity of valuable trees. 
Proper contracts for all work in the woods by which the liability 
for damage caused by fires is thrown upon the contractor. 
Annual burning of the woods intended to prevent the accumu- 
lation of vegetable matter or mould. (Pineries of the South). 
Removing duff from the close proximity of turpentine boxes. 
Stock la\iv. 

Associations of forest owners, as in Idaho, Washington and Oregon. 
Pasture by cattle and hogs to cause a more rapid decomposition 

of the vegetable carpet. 
Unceasing patrol of the forest during the dry season or during dry- 
spells, day and night, by an increased staff of watchmen, thor- 
oughly acquainted with their beat and with the people living 
in the neighborhood. 



10 FOREST PROTECTION 

II. — Remedial Measures: — 
a. — Main principles: — 

Have one man in full charge and hold him alone responsible. 

Have helpers and relays for helpers ready in the various ranges 
{scattering the work) during droughts, employing them in 
lumbering or in silviculture until their help is required 
at a fire. 

The foreman, upon arrival at the fire, must first ascertain the 
speed of the fire and the length of the line of attack; fur- 
ther, the distance from the next fire lane (trail, brook, 
pasture), and the amount of help locally available. 

The foreman must not hesitate to abandon the burning dis- 
trict, up to the next or second next fire lane. 

Food and water for the fire-fighters must be provided. 

The fire is subdued only when the last spark is extinguished. 
The edges of the burned area must be watched for 24 
hours succeeding the fire. 

b.— Tools:— 

The axe, hoe, spade, shovel, rake (preferably wooden teeth); 
brooms; plows on abandoned fields; water buckets and 
sprinkling cans; pack-train, or railroad- velocipedes prop- 
erly equipped; fire extinguishers. 

c. — Actual Work: 

(1) Underground fires can be stopped only by digging ditches 
and by turning water into them. 

(2) Surface fires are stopped 

By plowing or digging a furrow around the fire. 

By beating the fire out with brooms or green twigs. 

By removing the humus and debris from a narrow line 
in front of the fire by hand or rake. 

By throwing dirt on the fire. 

By sprinkling in front of the fire. 

By the use of extinguishers against the flame itself. 

By back-firing from the next point of vantage with due 
regard for the speed of the fire — the best and only 
remedy in the case of heavy conflagrations. 

(3) Top fires can be stopped only by providing broad fire 
lanes on which the trees are cut, and by back-firing from 
such lanes. 

(4) Stem fires burning in hollow trees are stopped by filling 
the holes in 'the trunk with dirt or by cutting the tree 
down. 

Fires going down hill, against the wind and in the hours following mid- 
night are the easiest to subdue. 

For the history of some famous forest fires, see Pinchot's Primer, Part I. 



FOREST PROTECTION 11 

For a number of tree species (notably Douglas fir, Yellow pines, Jack 
pine, Lodgepole pine, Aspen) fire must be considered as an excellent silvi- 
cultural tool or as a means of securing regeneration. 
F: — Treatment op Injured Woods. 

The treatment of injured woods differs according to species, age of 
woods, market facilities and severity of damage inflicted. 

I — Thickets of broadleaved species it is best to coppice, or else to clip 
down with the help of long handled pruning shears. 
Thickets of conifers are either so badly damaged as to require re- 
generation anew or are so little damaged as not to require any help. 

II— Pole Woods. 

Pole woods of broadleaved species are most severely damaged by 
spring fires, and should be cut where salable. 
Pole woods of conifers, if apt to die, should be made into money 
immediately, where possible. 

If coniferous pole woods are apt to live, careful trap-tree prac- 
tice will tend to. avoid more severe injury from insect plagues. 

III.— Tree Forests. 

Broadleaved tree forests are not apt to be injured by surface fires 
sufficiently to cause the death of the trees. Hence, usually, the 
trees are allowed to stand. If, however, a majority of the trees 
are killed, speedy utilization is necessary. 

In coniferous tree forests, trees are either at once killed by 
the fire, requiring immediate rem.oval, or else not sufficiently touched 
to be doomed. In the latter case, the use of trap trees is required 
to prevent insect plagues from developing. 

The presence of permanent means of transportation connecting 
the forest with a ready market is, under all circumstances, the most 
important factor in preventing material damage from striking the 
owner of merchantable forests killed by conflagrations. 



12 FOREST PROTECTION 

CHAPTER II: PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS. 



Par. 3. Protection Against Domestic Animals on Pasture. 

A — Introduction. 

Forest pasture is a legitimate forest industry. The waste pro- 
duction of the soil, in addition to shoots and branches of trees, are util- 
ized by pasturing stock. Vegetable matter transformed into flesh or 
wool adopts a more marketable and a more profitable shape. 

Forest pasture is, obviously, best adapted to woods of low stump- 
age prices; of difficult access; of scant timber production (East slopes 
of the Cascades; ridge between Pisgah and Balsam mountains). 

Forest pasture plays a role in the forest similar to that which field 
pasture plays on the farm. 

Whether forest pasture pays better in connection with tree growth 
or regardless of timber production, — that is a financial question to be 
answered by every land owner on the basis of local experience and of 
individual forecast. 

Abroad, since times immemorial, forests have been pastured and 
are still pastured to a surprising extent. 

Pasture frequently acts as a silvicultural tool; hogs are used to 
break the soU and to destroy insects; cattle or sheep driven over seed 
plantations or through the woods after seed-fall imbed the seeds to a 
proper depth; they destroy rank weeds overshadowing valuable seed- 
lings. 

B — ^The Damage by Pasture in the Forest is Threefold: — 
I. — To soil. Pasture hardens hard soil and loosens loose soU. 
II. — To trees. This damage consists of: 

a. — Browsing on buds, leaves and shoots. 

b. — Eating seeds and uprooting seedlings. 

c. — Tramping down seedlings and over-riding saplings. 

d. — Tossing-off the tops of saplings. 

e. — Peeling hardwood poles in spring. 

III. — To roads and road drainage. 
C. — Factors of Damage are: 

I. — Species of trees: Those most exposed are ash, maple, locust, chest- 
nut, linden, elm; less exposed are yellow poplar, willows, oaks 
(horses like oaks), birch, fir, hickory and walnut; least endangered 
are larch, spruce, pine. Practically safe is red cedar. 

II, — Age of trees: The seedling stage suffers most. 
III. — Silvicultural system: Systems in which the age classes are mixed 
suffer most, notably selection system and group system. 



FOREST PROTECTION 



IS 



IV. — Locality: Steep slope, loose soil and shifting sand suffer severely. 

V. — Species of animals: The animals may be arranged in the follow- 
ing schedule, placing the damage done by a horse at 100: 

Horse or mule foal 150 

Horse or mule 100 

Yearling cattle 75 

Grown cattle 50 

Goats 25 

Sheep 10 

Since a goat weighs 80 lbs. and a horse 10 times as much, the dam- 
age done by the goat is relatively great. In addition, goats prefer 
woody shoots and buds to mere grass. 

The rates charged for forest pasture in Pisgah Forest correspond 

more or less with this schedule, viz: 

Horses 90 cents per head per month 

Cattle 50 cents per head per month 

Sheep 10 cents per head per month 

In the pineries of the South, the lease receipts from pasture offset 
the taxes frequently. Foals destroy pasture more by their mere 
frolics than by their appetite. After Himdeshagen, 10 to 12i/^ 
acres of forest are required for the pasture of one head of cattle. 
VI. — Season of the year. Spring pasture is more destructive than 
summer or fall pasture. 

D. — Closed Time. 

In Central Europe young woods are closed to pasturage for a number 
of years. 



AGE OF WOODS WHEN PASTURE BEGINS, IN YEARS. 



SPECIES OF 
ANIMALS 


HIGH FOREST, 
BROAD LEAF 


HIGH FOREST, 
CONIFERS 


COPPICE 
FOREST 


Horses 

Cattle 


18 to 24 
14 to 18 


12 to 20 
9 to 16 


6 to 14 
4 to 10 



E. — Duration of Pasture 

In Western North Carolina, cattle are pastured in the woods from May 
1st, to October 15th, whilst sheep and hogs are kept on pasture dur- 
ing the entire year, fed only slightly after a heavy snow fall. 
In the pmeries of the South, cattle, sheep and hogs are kept in the woods 
durmg the entire year. Cattle are fed slightly, in addition to the pas- 
ture, during the four winter months. The much disputed pasture in 
the Sierras and Cascades is used only during the three summer months 
when the pasture in the lowlands dries out. 



14 • FOREST PROTECTION 

F. — Pasture in the National Forests: 

The pasture of sheep and goats is generally prohibited; cattle pasture 
generally allowed. 

Sheep ranges and cattle ranges are kept strictly apart. 
The Secretary of Agriculture determines annually the amount of pas- 
turage permitted for each forest, viz: 

a. — The number of horses, cattle, sheep and goats to be admitted; 

b. — The beginning and the end of the grazing season; 

c. — The ranges actually to be grazed. 
The stock of residents owning holdings within the forests is given pre- 
ference over "neighboring stock." Only citizens of the State are en- 
titled to grazing privileges. 

Under any circumstances, permits must be obtained through the super- 
visor by stock owners intending to pasture on the reserve (the stock 
of travelers and prospectors excepted). Sheep must be herded by a 
herdsman. 

The sheep ranges are allotted separately, usually according to the re- 
commendation of the local Wool Growers' Association. Promiscuous 
sheep grazing is strictly prohibited. 

Permit holders are required to prevent and to fight fires without com- 
pensation. 

G. — Protective Measures Meant to Safeguard the Timber Interests 
OF the Land Owner: — 
I. — Animals : 

a. — Limit the number of animals admitted. 
b. — Exclude goats. 

c. — Prevent cattle from following sheep. 
II.— Time: 

a. — Prevent pasture in early spring. 

b.^ — Insist on close time during regeneration and up to the thicket 

stage, 
c— Close forest pasture periodically so as to allow tree seedlings 
to escape the mouth of browsing animals. 

III. — Fencing: 

For cattle pasture, two or three strings of barbed wire are suffi- 
cient. For sheep pasture three or four strings. 100 lbs. of barbed 
wire form a string 1,600 to 1,900 feet long. 

Individual trees or seedlings, like orchard trees, are sometimes 
protected by screens placed around the tree. 

IV. — Seedlings should be planted within the "bays" of tree stumps 
after clear cutting wherever artificial regeneration is resorted to. 
Seed planting should be avoided. 



FOREST PROTECTION 15 



Par. 4. Protection Against Wild Vertebrates. 

Amongst the wild animals preying upon the forest the mammals figure 
as well as the birds, the role played by the vertebrates in the "house- 
hold" of the forest is little known. 

Birds and mammals may injure the forest directly — by eating vege- 
table matter produced in the forest,— or indirectly— by killing the 
friends of the forester. Utility of a wild animal is frequently combined 
with noxiousness, e. g. in the case of the crow, blue-jay, fox. 
Useful animals may help the forester either directly— by seed distri- 
bution,— or indirectly— by killing the enemies of the forest. 

A.— Protection Against Mammals Forming the Object of Chase. 
I. — Deer. 

a. — The damage done consists in: — 
• Eating fruits. 

Browsing on shoots and seedlings. 

Peeling the bark of saplings and poles (notably of spruce, 

oak, ash). 
Rubbing off the bark when freeing the antlers of velvet. 
Tramping down plantations or natural regenerations. 

The objects of damage are, above all, the rare species, or species 
arousing the curiosity of the deer. 

b. — Protective measures are: — 

Proper regulation of the number of deer. Compatible with 
the objects of silviculture are, per 10,000 acres, 50 head of 
elk or 150 head of Virginia deer, provided that nurseries are 
fenced. 

Feeding during winter by cutting soft woods or by providing 
hay stacks. Mast-bearing trees should be encouraged; grass 
meadows should be maintained; a few patches should be planted 
m turnips, potatoes, clover, etc. Maintaining salt licks, es- 
pecially with a view to preventing bark peeling in spring. 
Hohlfeld's game powder is said to answer the purpose still 
better. Fencing nurseries and young growth. 
Sprinkling seedlings with kerosene, liquid manure, blood, 
cotton residue or, better, covering the fall shoots, exclusive of 
bud, with coal tar. Coal tar is especially effective in the case 
of fir and spruce. Thinnings should be delayed as long as 
possible. Planting is preferable to sowing, especially to sow- 
ing in the fall. 

II.— Wild Boar. Boar are particularly disastrous to nurseries, nat- 
ural regenerations and plantations. The only remedies are strong 
fences. 



16 FOREST PROTECTION 

III. — Hares and Rabbits. The damage done consists in the biting- 
off of top shoots (notably of oaks, maples, firs, but also of pine); 
further, in gna wing-off the bark of locust, Crataegus, cherry, hard 
maple, linden. 

At Biltmore, rabbits feast especially on the shoots of the Buffalo 
nut (Pyrularia). The seedlings of Pinus echinata, in certain years, 
were bitten-off in the nurseries. 

Plantations of acorns at Biltmore have been annihilated by the 
rabbits, the shoots being clipped year after year. Thus the oak 
seedlings were prevented from successfully competing with the 
weeds (broom sedge). Nurseries require a fine meshed fence. 
Remedies lie, above all, in the protection of the fox, 'possum, skunk, 
marten, weasel, hawk, coon, mynx. 

In addition, sprinkling with coal tar (not on buds!) and wrapping 
of top shoots in cotton waste is recommended. 
The planting of rabbit-proof species (notably Picea pungens and 
Picea Sitchensis) is advisable. 

B. — Protection Against Mammals which do not Form the Object of 
THE Chase. 

Obviously, all carniverous animals are friends of the forester, whilst 
most herbivorous animals appear as his enemies. Amongst the plant 
eaters, the rodents excel in the amount of harm done. 

I. — Squirrels. 

a. — Damage done. 

Squirrels eat the seed on the tree as well as the seed planted 
by nature and man, preferring sweet oaks, beech, chestnut, 
walnut, cucumber-tree, hickories, pines. They eat the coty- 
ledons, buds and cambium of young shoots and destroy the 
nest brood of some useful birds. In the Pink Beds, the top 
shoots of white pine are cut off by the squirrels. Plantations 
of the heavy seeded broad leaved species have been destroyed 
at Biltmore repeatedly. 

b. — Protective measures. 

Protect the fox, marten, skvmk, coon, o'possum, hawk, owl, 

cat (wild and tame) and all other enemies. 

Remove hollow trees forming the hiding and nesting places 

of the squirrel. 

Plant seedlings or, possibly, nuts after sprouting, and if seeds 

must be planted, resort to spring-planting of the same. 

c. — Remedial measures. 
1 — Shoot the squirrel. 

2 — Poison it by bathing the seeds in strychnine before plant- 
ing, a means found ineffective at Biltmore. 

II. — Chipmunk. Similar damage and same remedies as for the squirrel. 
Its main enemy at Biltmore is the black snake and the rattlesnake. 



FOREST PROTECTION 17 

III. — Mice. 

a. — Damage done. 

The mice live on buds, seeds, seedlings and the cambiima layers 

of seedlings. 

The field mice undermine the ground in nurseries and planta- 
tions following the rows of plants and cutting the roots about 
one inch below the surface of the ground. Frequently they 
seem to follow in mole mines. The damage done by gnawing 
is conspicuous in plantations of locust and black cherry. In 
seed plantations on abandoned fields at Biltmore, mice have 
done enormous damage to. oaks and hickories. Planted locusts 
are bitten-off below ground. In the Biltmore nurseries, oak 
seed beds have suffered severely by the mice cutting the roots. 
Transplanted white pines were severely decimated, by gird- 
ling, in February, 1909. 

b. — Protective measures. 
Avoid autumn sowing. 

Plant seeds broadcast instead of planting in rills. 
Have nurseries far from grain fields and from abandoned fields. 
Keep deep and clean pathways between the beds. Surround 
nurseries by deep and steep-walled trenches. Insert pit falls 
in the bottom of such trenches. Work the nurseries contin- 
uously. Do not cover the nurseries with mould or moss form- 
ing hiding places. 

Keep the sedge grasses and weeds down in nurseries and re- 
generations, possibly by pasturing with cattle and sheep, thus 
disturbing the mice and tramping down their mines. Burn 
abandoned fields before planting. 

Pigs admitted to the woods just before a seed year destroy 
the mice whilst preparing the soil for natural regeneration. 
Protect the mouse-eaters, especially those which are fond of 
voles as owls, crows, fox, o'possum, cats. 

c. — Remedial Measures. 

Kill the mice by trapping or poisoning. In this latter case, 
place grains of wheat poisoned by immersion in strychnine, 
arsenic or phosphorus into drain pipes so as to check the possi- 
bility of accidentally poisoning singing birds or quail at the 
same time. Comp. Farmers bulletin No. 369, Biological Survey. 
The root of certain Scylla species, chopped into sausages, kills 
the mice by causing their bladders to burst. Gypsum is said 
to have a similar effect, solidifying in the stomach. The lat- 
ter remedies are not injurious to the mouse-eating animals 
which are frequently poisoned by catching the poisoned mice. 
The vaccination of the mice with the so-called "typhoid dis- 
ease" has not been suflaciently successful so far. 



18 FOREST PROTECTION 

d. — Treatment of injured plants. 

Broad leaved seedlings merely chewed above ground should 
be clipped back. Oak seedlings, cut off below groimd, have 
been successfully transplanted at Biltmore and have replaced 
the lost tap-root by a multitude of rootlets. 

IV. — Ground Hog or Wood Chuck. Dr. Fernow reports that his 
coniferous nurseries at Axton were badly plundered by woodchuck. 
After Schaaf, white oak saplings are peeled by woodchucks up to 
five feet from the ground, near fields. Stomach analysis at Bilt- 
more show only ferns. 

V. — Porcupine or Hedgehog. It peels the bark, especially that of 
spruce, basswood and hemlock, close to the base of the tree, pre- 
ferring saplings up to 5" in diameter. 

VI. — Beaver. It is now so rare that the damage done to the forest 
is insignificant. 

C. — Protection Against Birds. 

I, — Grouse. The grouse bite-off buds and cotyledons, and eat the 
fruit of certain tree species (buds of birch, maple, cottonwood; 
seeds of red cedar, beech, witch hazel, calmia and rhododendron). 
On the whole the damage done by grouse is inconspicuous. 

II. — Wild Turkey. The turkey is useful by eating some noxious in- 
sects and by scratching the leaves, thus burying certain tree seeds. 
At Biltmore, however, on Ducker Mountains, plantations of scarlet 
oak acorns have been practically destroyed by the turkey. In 
forest nurseries, as well, the turkey is apt to do considerable harm 
during the winter. 

III. — Pigeons and Doves. Pigeons live during spring and winter 
on coniferous seeds, beech nuts, buds and cotyledons. 
Remedies in nurseries are lath or wire screens or coverings of thorny 
branches. Pigeons may be shot at anise licks. 

IV. — Crows and Bluejays. These birds live on large seeds (acorns, 
beech nuts, chestnuts) and are especially dangerous in nurseries. 
They plunder the nests of useful birds. On the other hand, they 
may assist the forester in destroying mice and noxious insects; 
they uriderplant whole forests with acorns, beech nuts, hickory 
nuts and chestnuts. 

V. — Finches and Cross-bills. The damage done consists in the de- 
struction of seed plantations of conifers made in nurseries or in 
the open. It occurs during the spring migration of the birds when 
they appear in large swarms. 

The cotyledons are bitten off and eaten as well as the seeds. Some 
cross-bills split the scales of coniferous cones into two, withdraw- 
ing the seed from underneath the scales. 



FOREST PROTECTION 19 

Protective measures are: 
Screens of wire or lath over nursery beds. The mesh must be fine, 
and the distance between the lath must not exceed % inch. 
Shooting some birds, keeping the balance scared off. 
Coating the seeds in red lead (very efficient), one pound of red 
lead being sufficient to cover seven poimds of coniferous seeds. 
Shortening the period of exposure by planting the seeds in late 
spring after three to eight days mxilching. 
VI. — Woodpeckers. Woodpeckers withdraw the larvae of wood boring 
insects from their mmes with the help of a long, thin tongue. They 
withdraw useful as Well as harmful insects. They do damage by 
opening cones and by eating the seeds thereof. 
The damage done by picking holes into the cambium layers of 
certain trees is small. The holes made in sound yellow poplars 
rather denote a high quality than the presence of defective tim- 
ber. The holes made in oak and chestnuts are usually made in 
rotten or decaying wood, or in wood of no commercial value. 
There exist four theories attempting to explain the curious girdles 
of holes made by the woodpecker. 
a. — Incubator Theory. 

Holes are picked to invite the ovipositing of insects in such holes, 
b. — Napkin Theory. 

The woodpecker cleans its beak from particles of rosin. 
c. — Calendar Theory. 

Due to observation that woodpecker returns at regular inter- 
vals to same tree. 
d. — Sap-sucking Theory. 



20 FOREST PROTECTION 

Par. 5. Protection Against Insects. 

A. General Remarks. 

I. Insects are the most serious animal enemies of the forest. More 
than that, they are the worst enemies of the forest within 
organic nature. 

But in a certain sense, many insects seemingly injurious, are 
in fact beneficial, since they form one of the means by which 
nature selects the fittest individuals for the propagation of 
our trees. 

II. Almost all of the orders of insects contain families, some or 
all the members of which are directly beneficial. These bene- 
ficial forms are usually zoophagous, and may be — 

a. Predaceous insects feeding on eggs, larvae, pupse, or 
imagines of injurious species, notably — 

Order Coleoptera: Families Coccinellidce, Cicin- 

delidce, Carabidoe, Elateridce, Cleridce, Trogositidce, 

Colydiidce. 

Order Diptera: Families Asilidce, Syrphidoe. 

Order Hymenoptera: Superfamily Formicoidea. 

Order Hemiftera: Family Reduviidce. 

Order Orthoptera: Family Mantidoe. 

Many Neuropteroid insects.* 

b. Parasitic insects, ovipositing on or in the bodies of 
injurious species. The more important are — 

Order Diptera: Family Tachinidce. 

Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Ichneumon- 

oidea, Proctotrypoidea, Chalcidoidea. 

e. Parasitic insects, paralyzing their prey by stinging, and 
carrying them into their nests where the eggs of the 
parasite are deposited. 

Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Sphegoidea, 

Vespoidea. 

Many families are neither injurious nor beneficial, and are there- 
fore of no economic importance. Other groups which may be 
either injurious or beneficial to man, are not mentioned here, 
because they bear no direct relation to forest trees. Amongst 
the phytophagous insects, there are however, very many forms 
that are injurious to our forests. Those living on tree weeds 
must, of course, be considered as beneficial; but speaking gen- 



*The old order Neuroptera, has been divided into several orders in modern systems of 
classification. The group as a whole is of little economic importance to the forester, and 
for that reason, the inclusive term, Neuropteroid, is used. 



FOREST PROTECTION 21 

erally, phytophagous insects found in the forests, are more or 
less injurious. The families which contain most of the injur- 
ious species are — 

Order Coleoptera: Families Cerambyddce, Bu- 
prestidce, Elateridce, Ptinidce, Scarabaeidce, Chryso- 
melidce, Curculionidce, Brenthidce, Scolytidoe. 
Order Lepidoptera: Families Ardiidce, Bomby- 
cfidcB, Cossidce, HesperidcB, Liparidcs, Noctuidce, Par- 
'pilionidce, ZygaenidcB. 

Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Tenthredi- 
noidea, Cynipoidea. 

Order Hemiptera: Families Cocddce, Aphididce, 
Cicadidce. 

Order Diptera: Families Cecidomyiidce, Syrph- 
idce. 

Order Orthoptera: Families Locustidce, Phas- 
midce. 

III. Insects are divided into three groups, according to the rela- 
tion that exists between the younger stages and the adults, 

a. The Ametabola, which includes a single order, the 
Thysaneura, in which the young and adults differ 
only in size. 

6. The Hemimetabola, in which are included the Orthop- 
tera, the Hemiptera, etc., etc. In this group the 
young and adults differ not only in size, but in several 
other characters, and the young become more and 
more like the adults after each molt. 

c. The Metabola, in which are included the Coleoptera, 
Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, etc., etc. In 
this group, the young and the adults are totally un- 
like, and before taking the mature form, the larvae go 
through a resting stage. 

The first stage of the insect is the egg, and after hatch- 
ing, it arrives at maturity through a series of molts. 
On hatching, the young of the Metabola are called 
larvce (caterpillars, maggots, grubs); and in the Ameta- 
bola and Hemimetabola, they are called nymphs. There 
are several molts during the larval or nymphal stage, 
and the period between any two of them is called an 
instar. The quiescent stage during which the larvae 
of the Metabola change to imagines, is called the pupa; 



22 FOREST PROTECTION 

and the mature or reproductive stage of all insects 
is called the adult, or imago. The pupa of a butterfly 
is very often called a chrysalis, and the silken sack 
spun by many insects in which to pupate, is the co- 
coon. Larvffi of Diptera and of some other insects, 
pupate within a tough outer covering commonly sup- 
posed to be simply a pupal skin. The true pupa is, 
however, entirely within it, and the tough outer cover- 
ing is distinguished hj the name puparium. After 
reaching the adult stage, the insect does not become 
any larger, and does not m^olt; its only function is to 
mate, and lay eggs. Some species are unable even to 
feed after becoming adult, and in almost all cases, the 
larvse or nymphs are much more voracious than the 
mature insects. In general, then, the greater part of 
the insect damage to our forests is done before the in- 
sects responsible become mature. The Ambrosia 
beetles form a notable exception to this rule. 

The sum total of the stages of development of an 
insect is termed a generation, and a given species may 
be single-brooded, double-brooded, treble-brooded, etc., 
according to the number of generations which occur 
during a single year. Many insects require more than 
a single year to complete a generation, and are then 
called biennial, triennial, etc. A species of the Cica- 
didse is known to have a life round of seventeen years. 

IV. Climatic and Seasonal Conditions Affecting Insect Life. 
In general, the number of species of insect life decreases as 
altitude or latitude increases, v/hile at the same time, the num- 
ber of individuals of a species becomes larger. The number 
of generations of a given species is also affected by the climate; 
for instance, a species which is "double-brooded" in the Mid- 
dle States, may become "treble-brooded" in the Southern 
States, and "single-brooded" in Canada. 

Insects spend the winter months in a resting or hibernating 
stage which varies for the different species. That is, a given 
species may hibernate either in the egg, larval, pupal, or adult 
stage. They are protected against the cold either by their 
own coverings, or by the hiding places selected by them in the 
trees, in the bark, in the moss and leaves, in the stumps, or 
in the ground. Extreme cold is no more likely to injure the 
insect than it is to kill the tree itself; but sudden changes of 
temperature and moisture, especially cold wet spells in late 
spring, or after a premature thaw has drawn the hibernating 



FOREST PROTECTION 23 

insects from their winter quarters, may be disastrous to large 
numbers of certain species, particularly during the molting 
periods of the larva3. 
V. Insect Plagues. A succession of favorable springs, free from 
late frosts and wet spells, is apt to result in an anomalous mul- 
tiplication of a species. Hence, according to European re- 
cords, insect plagues, hke successions of favorable climatic 
conditions, occur and recur after periodic intervals. The ef- 
fects of parasitism however, are very likely to be confused with 
climatic effects in these records, and too much dependance 
should not be pla'ced on them. These periodic plagues of in- 
sects are very likely to occur in spite of all human ingenuity. 
But experience teaches us that, in the great majority of cases, 
nature may be trusted to restore the balance that has been 
so disturbed. An abnormal increase in the numbers of a given 
species not only is likely to reduce the natural food supply of 
such a species so that many individuals will die of starvation, 
but the parasitic and predaceous enemies of the species also 
enormously increase in niunbers, being encouraged to do so 
by the abundance of the food on which they exist, and by the 
ease with which it may be obtained. For the same reason, 
bacterial and fungous diseases have a better opportunity to 
spread from one individual to another. The years following 
an insect plague are, therefore, very likely to be exceptionally 
free from the particular species involved. Consequently, a 
plague of this sort usually lasts for but one or two years, al- 
though in exceptional cases it may last for three or four years. 
In the forest, an insect plague, in which several species are 
often involved, is likely to follow in the wake of a destructive 
fire or storm, or of an attack by fungi. In any case where 
such a plague has swept through the forest the dead trees should 
be marketed immediately if the conditions are at all favorable. 
Otherwise the resulting loss will be much more serious. 
The amount of damage done by a serious outbreak of insects 
in a forest will depend very largely on the nature of the species 
involved. If the species is "monophagous," that is, depen- 
dent for its food supply only on a single species of tree, it is 
likely to cause serious losses only in localities where pure stands 
of the particular tree occur, or, at least, where the trees of 
that species are not so scattered through the forest as to make 
it difficult for the adult females of the injurious insect to find 
a suitable place for oviposition. Polyphagous insects, on the 
other hand, affect many host trees; and while they are likely 
to distribute their injuries, so that their effect on the forest 
is less noticeable, still the ultimate losses extending over a 
period of years, may be very great. A species imported ac- 



24 FOREST PROTECTION 

cidentally from one country to another, is much more likely 
than a native species to cause serious losses, because of the 
absence of native parasites and other enemies which serve 
to keep it in check in its original habitat. The extensive 
ravages of the Gipsy Moth in Massachusetts, which have lasted 
over a long period of years, is without precedent in European 
countries, although the species has been abundant over a 
large part of the continent of Europe, probably for several 
centuries. 

It may be that insect plagues play a role in the natural change 
of species of plants coinciding with geological periods, but 
the question is one of speculation, not demonstration. 

VI. Species of Trees Affected. There are no species which 
are not liable to insect attack, but some are much less sus- 
ceptible than others. Conifers have, on the whole, less re- 
cuperative powers than broad-leaved species, and consequently 
succiunb much more readily to insect attacks. In this coun- 
try, the spruces and pines, wherever occurring in pure and 
even-aged forests, are the species which suffer most, 

VII. Condition of Trees Affected. We may divide injurious 
insects into three classes according to the condition of the 
trees attacked. 

a. Certain species, notable those that feed on leaves 
and pith, usually prefer healthy to diseased plants. 
They may either kill the tree outright or weaken it 
to such an extent that conditions are made favor- 
able for the attacks of — 

b. species which generally prefer unhealthy trees. Or- 
dinarily these species never attack healthy plants, 
but in years of plagues they may -be forced to do so. 
Thus in years of extreme abundance, millions of 
bark-beetles may be drowned in the resin of healthy 
pines before the trees are weakened to an extent 
sufficient to allow subsequent millions to propagate 
the species. 

c. Certain other species only attack the trees after they 
have been killed. Dead timber, either standing or 
on the ground, should be marketed as soon as pos- 
sible as a precaution against damage. Decaying logs 
and stumps are always found infested with numerous 
species of insects which cannot be classed as injur- 
ious since they merely hasten the process of decay. 
Those insects of this class which are injurious are 



FOREST PROTECTION 25 

of less importance to the forester than to the pur- 
chaser of his product. Some of them cause serious 
losses in lumber yards, ship yards, bark sheds, fac- 
tories, etc. 

Insects of classes "a" and "b" above are sometimes called 
"parasitic" because they attack living plants, as distinguished 
from those of class "c," which feed only on dead timber, and 
are called "saprophytic." The term "parasite," however, is 
commonly used in Entomology to denote a species of insect 
which has another species for its host, and the student should 
be careful in his reading to distinguish between the broader 
and narrower uses of the term. 

VIII. Part of Tree Attacked. No part of the tree is entirely 
free from insect injury. According to species, insects may 
feed upon the buds (caterpillar causing the fork in the ash), 
the leaves (elm leaf -beetle), the fruit (chestnut and acorn 
weevils), the pith (locust shoot-borer), the cambium (larvae 
of the so-called bark-beetles), the heart- wood (chestnut borers), 
the sap-wood (many of the longicorn borers), the roots (larvae 
of May-beetles), and the bark (notably tan-bark). 

IX. Degree op Damage. According to the amount of damage 
done, insects may be classed as a, Damaging insects; b, Des- 
tructive insects, and c. Pernicious insects. Insects are called 
physiologically obnoxious if they check the growth or propa- 
gation of plants, and technically obnoxious if they destroy or 
reduce the technical value without checking the growth. The 
Hemlock bark-maggot furnishes a good example of the last 
named class. 



B. REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES IN GENERAL AGAINST 
INSECT INJURY. 

I. Select the proper species for reproduction on a given soil. 

II. Encourage mixed forests. 

III. Avoid large continuous clearings. 

IV. Use the ranger staff in controlling the insects. 

V. Remove the weak trees, and strengthen the remaining indi- 
viduals by means of thinnings. 

VI. Protect and improve the productiveness of the soil. 

VII. Protect the forest from damage by storm, sleet, or fire in the 
wake of which insect plagues frequently follow. 



26 FOREST PROTECTION 

VIII. Remove or poison stumps if they are found to form the incu- 
bators or food-objects of a noxious insect during one of its 
stages. 

IX. Peel off the bark where logs are left on the ground for any 
considerable length of time. 

X. Encourage hog pastures in the case of certain species of in- 
sects. With other species, steep walled ditches may prevent 
the enemy from spreading in nurseries and plantations. 

XI. Protect the insectivorous animals, notably: — 

a. Bats, moles, weasels, foxes, etc. 

h. \¥oodpeckers, tits, owls, etc. 

c. Amphibia. 

d. Spiders. 

e. Centipedes, millipedes, etc. 

XII, Collect and destroy the insect in that stage which best allows 
remedial measures to be taken. 

a. Eggs may be tarred or covered with creosote when 
they are placed in masses in conspicuous positions. 

h. Larvae may be destroyed by spraying the food plant 
with arsenicals or other stomach poisons, or the in- 
sects themselves with kerosene or other contact poi- 
sons; by trapping them on or below bands of burlap 
or tree tanglefoot; by the use of ti-ap trees; or by 
burning their winter quarters or the object (bark) 
forming their abode. 

c. Pupae may sometimes be collected and burned, par- 
ticularly^ when the insect hibernates in this stage. 

d. Adults may be beaten off the bushes during the early 
morning; may be collected during the hot hours of 
the day in artificial hiding places; or may be caught 
by means of pit-falls, tanglefoot or burlap rings, trap 
trees, or electric lights. 

The selection of a method of treatment depends not only upon 
the species of insect concerned, but upon many factors enter- 
ing into the local conditions. In general, prevention is better 
than the application of a remedj^ This is particularly true 
in the present status of American forest conditions; and the 
use of insecticides is only profitable in rare instances. Indeed 
in America the forester vnll frequently he -prevented from adopt- 
ing any measures whatever, remedial or preventive, because the 
cost will exceed the value of the benefit to be derived. But in no 



FOREST PROTECTION 27 

case should a remedy be attempted by one who is not fully 
informed as to the life history and food-habits of the insect 
enemy, and with the remedy to be used. In either event 
more damage than benefit may result. For instance, trap- 
trees may often be successfully used against certain insect 
pests; but unless destroyed at the proper time, just before 
the emergence of the adults, the numbers of the enemy will 
be increased rather than diminished. The advice of a com- 
petent Forest Entomologist should be obtained wherever pos- 
sible. 



C. INSECT ANATOMY. 

I. The body of an adult insect is divided into three regions. 

a. The head consists of a single segment, and bears 
exteriorly a pair of antennce, a pair of compound eyes, 
the ocelli, which vary in number and are often absent, 
and the mouth parts, consisting of the labrum, two 
mandibles, two maxillce, and the labium.. Maxillary 
and labial palpi are also present, sometimes so modi- 
fied however as to be not easily recognizable. The 
difference between "biting" and "sucking" mouth 
parts is important both in classification and as re- 
gards methods of treatment. 

fe. The thorax consists of three segments, the prothorax, 
the mesothorax, and the metathorax. Each segment 
bears a pair of legs, and the mesothorax and meta- 
thorax normally bear the fore and hind urings. The 
legs are also segmented, the joints bearing the fol- 
lowing names: The segment attached to the thorax 
is called the coxa, then come in order the trochanter 
(sometimes made up of two short segments), the femur, 
the tibia, and lastly the tarsus made up of several 
segments on the last of which are borne the claws. 
The wings are composed of two membranes held to- 
gether by supporting rods called veins, or nerves, and 
are sometimes covered with hairs or scales. In the 
case of the Coleoptera, the fore wings (Elytra) are 
hard and leathery, and the veins are absent. 

c. The abdomen consists of several segments, some or 
all with stigmata or breathing pores. The external 
reproductive organs are iisually borne on the last or 
anal segment of the abdomen. In certain species 
an ovipositor (laying-tube), or a saw-like instrument 
assists the female in oviposition. 



28 FOREST PROTECTION 

II. The Larva. In the larvse of the Metabola, as in the adult 
insect, the first segment is the head, the next three make up 
the thorax, and the remainder of the body is called the abdo- 
men; but the three regions are not so distinct as is the case 
with the imago. The mouth parts are almost always for 
"biting," and have the same names as in the imago. The 
spinnarets of certain caterpillars, situated in the mouth, are 
the apertures of long glands, which traverse the entire body. 
If present, the antennae are rudimentary. If legs are present, 
there are always three pairs, situated on the ventral side of 
the thoracic segments. Sometimes there are also legs on 
some of the abdominal segments, but these are more prop- 
erly called pro-legs, and are not segmented. 

III. The Nymph. In the Ametabola and the Hemimetabola, the 
anatomy of the younger stages is similar to that of the imago. 

IV. The Pupa. The pupa is called carved or masked, according 
to the ease with which legs, antennae, mouth parts, etc., can 
be distinguished through the pupa case. The outer web of 
silk spun for protection by many Lepidoptera and Hymen- 
OPTERA is called the cocoon. 

V. The Egg. Insect eggs vary greatly in form. They may be 
cup-shaped or kidney-shaped, crater-formed or mucronate, 
round, oval, or canoe-shaped. Very rarely they are stalked. 

VI. Internal Anatomy. In an insect, this consists of a, the 
Endoskeleton; b, Musculature; c, the Digestive System; (oesopha- 
gus, crop, proventriculus, stomach, hind-gut, salivary and 
other glands, Malpighian tubes, etc.); d, the Nervous System, 
(brain, suboesophageal ganglion, thoracic and abdominal gang- 
lia, nerve cord, motor and sensory nerves); e, the Circulatory 
System, (the heart and blood); /, the Respiratory System, 
I (stigmata and trachse or trachagal-gills) ; and g, the Reproduc- 
tive Organs, (ovaries, ovarian tubes, and oviduct in the female; 
spermaries and vasa deferentia in the male). 



FOREST PROTECTION 



29 



INSECT FAMILIES ARRANGED ACCORDING TO FOOD OBJECTS 
IN THE FOREST. 

Compare Page of 
Ent. Bul. No. 48 
I. Infesting the Cambial Bark. 

Bark Beetles Scolytidse (excepting Platypini, larvse and adults) ... 9 

Flat and round Buprestidse, Cerambycidse (mines often extending into 
headed borers: wood prior to pupation) . 10 

Bark weevils: Curculionidse 10 

Powder post 

beetles: Ptinidse, (in peeled tan bark) II 

II. Infesting the Wood. 
Ambrosia or 

timber beetles : Scolytidse (larvse and adults) 10 

Wood-boring 

caterpillars: Sesiidse 10 

True woodboring 

beetle-grubs: Lymexilonidse, Brenthidse 10 

Bark and wood 

boring grubs: Curculionidse, Cerambycidse, Buprestidse 10 

Carpenter worms: Cossidse 11 

Horn tails: Siricidse 11 

Powder post 

beetles: Lyctidse, Ptinidse, Bostrichidse (dead wood only). . . 11 

III. Injuring Leaves or Needles. 
True Caterpillars 
and measuring 

worms: Lepidoptera (practically all families of the order). . . 11 

False caterpillars Tenthredinidse 12 

Leaf beetles: Chrysomelidse 12 

Gall insects: Cynipidse, Cecidomyiidse, Aphididse 12 

Plant lice: Aphididse, Psyllidse 12 

Scale insects: Coccidse 12 

IV. Infesting Twigs. 
Twig mining 

beetles: Scolytidse, Buprestidse, Cerambycidse 12 

Twig weevils: Curculionidse 13 

Twig caterpillars: Tineidse, Tortricidse 13 

Scale insects: Coccidse 13 

Plant lice: Aphididse 13 

Gall insects: Cecidomyiidse and Cynipidse 13 

Cicadas: Cicadidse 13 

V. Infesting Young Seedlings in Nurseries. 

Cutworms: Noctuidse 

Junebugs: Scarabseidse 



30 



FOREST PROTECTION 



Click beetle-larv£e 
(Wire worms) 
Weevils : 
Crickets : 
Cicadas : 



Weevils : 
Cone and 
nut worms: 
Gall flies: 



Elateridse 

Curculionidae 

Gryllidae 

Cicadidaj 

VI. Infesting Fruits or Seeds. 
Curculionidffi 13 

Tortricidse, Phycitidse 14 

Cynipidse 14 



FOREST PROTECTION 31 

Means of Protection 



I. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING THE CAMBIAL 
BARK OF THE TRUNK. 

A. Against Scolytid.^e (Bark Beetles). 

(1) Conduct the logging operations at that season of the year at which 
the logs are apt to become infested; and after infection, remove the bark, 
entirely or partially; or move the logs rapidly to water or mill. In other 
cases, conduct logging at that season at which the debris left are not apt 
to form incubators for Scolytidss; or else long before swarming (e. g., cut 
pine at Biltmore in early winter, to avoid Dendrodonus frontalis). Com- 
pare Agric. Year Book, 1902, p. 275 for D. frontalis and p. 281 for D. po7i- 
derosce. 

(2) Girdle, peel, lodge, fall or blaze trap trees of inviting diam_eter, 
shape and position prior to the time of the swarming of the Scoiytidis. Com- 
pare Agric. Year Book, 1902, p. 269. Trap trees might be prepared in the 
district to be logged next. Try to destroy the trapped Scolytidse without 
injury to the Cleridse and their allies. 

(3) E,emove or burn logging debris; or swamp the tree tops left, thus 
creating unfavorable conditions of moisture. Sometimes it is possible to 
use the debris as traps. Compare, however, Entom. Bui. No. 21, p. 23, for 
advice to leave the debris, so as to divert predatory Scolytidse from sound 
trees to debris. 

(4) Leave all trees (also trap trees) in the woods which prove to be 
incubators for Ichneumonidse, Braconidse, Clialcididse. Remove the outer 
bark so as to assist ovipositing Ichneumoias in reaching their prey. Intro- 
duce and breed parasites. (Bui. West Va. Agr. Station, p. 32G.) 

(5) Counteract reckless deadening by farmers engaged in clearing their 
fields. 

(6) Adopt proper diameter limit in logging where a Scolytid attacks 
only trees of certain diameter classes. Remember, e. g., that the spruce 
having under 10" d.b.h. is safe from D. piceaperda. 

(7) Begin logging in districts recently damaged by fire, storm, sleet. 

(8) Remove even worthless trees, if they are apt to act as incubators. 
Keep in mind, on the other hand, that trees with dead cambium are not 
attacked by cambium boring Scolytidse. 

(9) Have at hand, ready for use, permanent means of transportation 
so as to be able to operate when and where you ought to operate; particu- 
larly, when and where timber begins to die. 

(10) Conduct thinnings in a manner and at a time counteracting in- 
fection by Scolytidse. Remove dying and injured (by lightning) trees, 
also trees weakened in vigor. 



32 FOREST PROTECTION 

(11) Watch for spider webs showing saw dust; for drops of rosin (pitch 
tubes) appearing on the bark; for a local increase of woodpeckers indicating 
an increase of food material; for a slight change in the tint of the pine-crowns. 

(12) Apply sprays or washes, twice or thrice per season, to particu- 
larly valuable trees (Forest Bui. No. 22, p. 56), e. g., lime and Paris green, 
mixed to a mass of light green color; or soft soap, adding enough washing 
soda and water to reduce the mixture to the consistency of a thick paint; 
or a thick wash of soap, Paris green and plaster of Paris; or a mixture of one 
pint of carbolic acid, one gallon of soft soap and eight gallons of soft water. 
Arsenate of lead may be used instead of Paris green, and has a greater in- 
secticidal value. 



B. Against Buprestid^ and Cerambycid.e (Flat-headed 
AND Round-headed Borers). 

(1) Prepare trap trees, or use trees accidentally injured or weakened 
as such. 

(2) Remove, peel, burn or immerse in water, trees in weakened con- 
dition. Begin logging in districts containing such trees (e. g., blowdowns, 
burns). 

(3) Prevent ground fires which weaken the trees, burst their bark and 
render them liable to successful attacks by Buprestids and Cerambycids. 
Try to retain the fertility of the soil. 

(4) Protect insectivorous animals (compare Bureau of Entomology 
Bulletin No. 28, p. 23.) 

(5) Prevent trees left in the course of logging from being recklessly 
injured by axe, by felled trees striking them, etc. 

(6) Where you remove a portion only of the trees standing in the woods, 
log in winter (not in spring and summer). 



C. Against Curculionid.e ("Bark Weevils")- 

(1) Remove the trees which appear injured by axe, lightning, storm, 
sleet or the fall of a neighbor. 

(2) Prepare trap trees, and destroy the brood of Curculionids develop- 
ing therein in due season. 

D. Against Ptinid^. 

Mind that the bark is safe from powderpost beetles for two years, and 
do not store any tan bark for more than two years. 



FOREST PROTECTION 33 

II. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS BORING IN WOOD 
AND TIMBER. 

A. Against ScoLYTioiB ("Ambrosia Beetles")- 

(1) Remove infested trees or logs prior to swarming. 

(2) , Cut low stumps, or poison or char the stumps. 

(3) Remove bark from all logs liable to be affected or throw the logs 
into water. Do not leave in the woods any summer-felled logs. 

(4) Xiog all blow-downs and brules as rapidly as possible. 

(5) Have all parts of the woods continuously accessible to logging, by 
establishing permanent means of transportation. 

(6) Prevent ruthless deadening by farmers. Girdle cypress, oak and 
ash — preparatory to driving or rafting — after the swarming season of the 
Scolytids. 

(7) In orchards or gardens, coat the treetrunks with dendrolene; spray 
them with kerosene; plug the holes bored, leave a nail therein, or use a de- 
terrent wash (compare Bureau of Forestry Bulletin No. 46, p. 66). 

(8) Do not leave any logs in the woods or in the log yard for any length 
of time. In case of logging in spring and summer, peel off the bark. 



B. Against Ltmexylonidte and Brenthid^.. 

(1) Reproduce the chestnut from seedlings, not from sprouts. Re- 
move dead limbs quickly, and cover the scar with tar. 

(2) Prevent the bark of the chestnut from being injured and opened 
by fires, by the fall of neighboring trees, by axe wounds, etc. 

On the other hand, scarify a number of trees to be cut and removed in 
the course of your operations in the near future. Strip off the bark in nar- 
row bands, or blaze and hack through it as high as the axe will reach. Do 
this towards the time when the chestnut begins to bloom. The swarming 
insect deposits her eggs into the scars made, and all trees thus treated act 
as trap trees. 

(3) Do not leave any cord wood or any logs of chestnut in the forest 
after June 15, so as to remove insects contained therein before hatching. 

(4) Keep the forest dense, dark, moist, cool. 



C. Against Cerambycid^ (Round-headed Borers). 

(1) Cut in summer and peel the bark of the logs cut; or remove a hor- 
izontal strip of .bark along and on top of the log. The moisture gathering 
in the gutter thus made prevents the grubs from developing. 

(2) Log rapidly after heavy conflagrations, blowdowns or plagues of 
bark beetles. Readiness to remove dead timber minimizes the damage by 
Cerambycids. If removal is impossible, throw the logs into water, char or 
peel them. 

(3) For shade trees, prevent oviposition by a wash consisting of soap 
and carbolic acid (compare Report N. Y. Forest, Fish and Game Commis- 
sion, Vol. IV, p. 21). The borer-holes might be stopped with putty after 
inserting a little carbon bisulphide (explosive). 

B 



34 FOREST PROTECTION 

D. Against Lyctid^, Ptinid^, Bostrichid.e (Powderpost Beetles). 

(1) Use heartwood sticks for sticking in lumber piles. 

(2) Do not dead pile. 

(3) Spray piles with naphtaline or creoline-Pearson three times, peri 
Beason. 

(4) Impregnate all sapwood before using it. 

(5) Keep an eye on all parts of the yard continuously. 

(6) Infested pieces of timber should be thoroughly steamed, or im-ji 
pregnated, or liberally treated with gasoline, kerosene, creoline, or kept J 
submerged for a number of weeks (compare Bureau of Entomology, Circu-J 
lar No. 55). 



III. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INJURIOUS TO LEAVES, 
NEEDLES AND BUDS. 

A. Against Lepidopterous Caterpillars. 

(1) Remove — possibly by fire — leaf mould, mosses, brush found at 
bases of trees where such material forms the winter quarters for the insect. 

(2) Apply to the trees bands of burlap, 10" wide (compare Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 99, p. 20), or bands of "Tree Tanglefoot"; in the latter case 
either after the removal of the ross on the tree, or on a sheet of oiled paper 
fastened round the tree. Usually, heavy thinnings precede the application. 

(3) Burn the webs of web worms. 

(4) Moisten egg heaps with creosote oil (e. g., for tussock moth). Use 
a steel brush to destroy the eggs by rubbing. 

(5) Spray with washes, remembering, that the underside of the leaves 
must be sprayed and that the job is well done only when the tree drips. A 
common wash consists of one pound of Paris green and one pound of quick 
lime dissolved in 150 gallons of water. An excellent wash is made from 
arsenate of lime which adheres long, shows its presence by its white color 
and is harmless to the leaves. See for recipe, also for description of power- 
spray. New York Forest, Fish and Game Commission, IV. report, p. 10. 

(6) Protect insectivorous birds, snakes, lizards, toads. 

(7) Confine collected caterpillars as closely together as possible, so as 
to breed deadly diseases amongst them (e. g., Empusa), or so as to invite 
counter-plagues (Microgaster, Pimpla, etc.) 

(8) Catch the swarming moths by exhaust fans placed near strong 
electric lights. 

(9) Allow of hog pasture. 



B. Against Tenthrbdinid^ (Nemattjs), Aphidid^e, CocciDiE, 

PSYLLID^. 

(1) Use of soap wash, j^repared by dissolving soap in boiling water, 
adding kerosene (New York Forest, Fish and Game Commission, IV. re- 
port, p. 31); or arsenical insecticides, caustic washes, etc., (for which com- 
pare Bureau of Entomology, Bui. No. 7, pp. 33, 37, 45, 51). 



FOREST PROTECTION 35 

(2) Protect insectivorous animals. 

(3) Destroy infested plants or, in the case of Nematus erichsonii, in- 
fested woodlands. 



IV. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING BRANCHES, 
TWIGS, SHOOTS. 

A. Against Scolytid^e. 

(1) Collect and burn affected shoots before the larvae begin to pupate 
therein. 

(2) Use logging debris as -traps. 

(3) Burn logging debris, or swamp the crowns of felled trees. 



B. Against Curculionid^ (Twig Weevils). 

(1) Avoid logging and thinning of pinewoods near young pines in the 
seedling or in the sapling stage. 

(2) Remove the top shoots of white pine attacked by Pissodes strobi, 
and keep them in a barrel covered with netting, in the nursery, so as to kill 
the weevil without destroj'ing its parasites. 

(3) Remove, char, peel or poison fresh pine stumps. 

(4) Apply to the terminal shoots of white pine, during April or May, 
a spray consisting of fish oil soap, Paris green and carbolic acid diluted in 
water (Bureau of Forestry, Bui. No. 22, p. 59). 

(5) Use trap trees for oviposition, consisting of fresh-cut pine billete 
buried obliquely with one end protruding above ground. Burn these traps 
after the eggs have hatched. 

(6) Collect the adults underneath large pieces of fresh pine bark placed 
on the ground. The adults spend the hot hours of the day imderneath the 
bark attracted by the smell of rosin. 



C. Against CERAMBYCiDiB. 

(1) Collect limbs broken off by wind and infested by Elaphidion (Oak 
pruner). 

(2) Cut off shoots or saplings affected by larvae. 



D. Against Tineid^ and ToBTRiciDiE. 



(1) Remove infested shoots. 

(2) Apply insecticides. 



E. Against Cicadidjb. 

(1) Collect larvae. 

(2) Protect crows and owls. 



36 FOREST PROTECTION 

V. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS AFFECTING SEEDLINGS 
IN NURSERIES. 

A. Against Curculionid^. 

(1) Do not leave any pine stumps in or near nurseries. 

(2) Raise healthy transplants, on well-manured soil. 

(3) Collect adults under bark traps, and collect larvse on billets buried 
obliquely. 



B. Against Scarab^eid^ ( June Bugs). 

(1) Collect adults in early morning from bushes. 

(2) Cultivate four or five times that section of the nursery which is 
lying fallow. 

(3) Protect insectivorous birds. 

(4) Trap the larvse beneath reversed sods of grass. 

(5) Separate the beds by deep trenches. 

(6) Irrigate freely — if possible, raising the water in the trenches from 
time to time to the level of the beds. 

(7) Cultivate the beds heavily and frequently, particularly during 
the winter months. 



C. Against Noctuid^ (Cut Worms). 

(1) Catch adu.ts at night with sugared apples. 

(2) Poison caterpillars with cabbage sprinkled with arsenic and laid 
along the nursery beds. 

(3) Irritate caterpillars by continuous cultivation of soil. 



D. Against Cicadid^. 

Do not keep any broad-leaved trees or bushes in or near the nursery 
on which the eggs might be deposited. Injection of bisulphide of carbon 
into soil is recommended by Bureau of Entomology, Bui. No. 14, p. 111. 



I E. Against GryllidjE (Crickets). 

(1) Protect moles, crows, etc. 

(2) Keep deep trenches between the beds, and use short beds. 

(3) Insert earthenware pots at the intersection of trenches. 

(4) Propagate a fungus disease (Empusa Grylli) for which see Bureau 
of Entomology, Bull. No. 38, p. 53. 

(5) Plow the beds deeply before using them. 



FOREST PROTECTION 37 

VI. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING FRUITS OR SEEDS, 

I. E., AGAINST CURCULIONIDiE, TORTRI- 

CIDiE, PHYCITIDJE. 

(1) When wintering chestnuts or acorns, store them in the natural 
way, not allowing the seeds to become dry. See lectures on Sylviculture. 

(2) Plant seeds as soon as possible after collecting. 



38 



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FOREST PROTECTION 39 



REFERENCE LIST 

Compiled by F. D. Cotjden and C. A. Schence 
The following pages will refer the student to publications, most of which 
should be in the library of the up-to-date forester, where accounts, more 
or less complete, of certain species of insects injurious to forest and shade 
trees may be found. The list is by no means complete, and it is very likely 
that a few even of the important species have been omitted. The study 
of Forest Entomology is still in its infancy; but the literature, whHe not 
yet voluminous, is so scattered thut it would not be profitable for the pre- 
sent purpose to go through it with a fine-toothed comb. A great many 
errors wUl undoubtedly be noticed by Entomologists, particularly as to 
synonymy; but it is hoped, nevertheless, that the list wUl be of some value 
to the students of Forestry for whom it is designed. 

The arrangement is faulty in that many polyphagous species of msects 
are not listed under all of their host trees. Porthetria dispar, for instance, 
is listed only xmder Quercus, whereas the caterpillars of the Gipsy Moth 
feed indiscriminately on the foilage of almost any tree within their range. 
The use of the "index," however, will enable the student to find the refer- 
ences to any insect listed, without regard to the host under which the re- 
ference is given. 

Here follow the complete titles of all the publications used in the pre- 
paration of the list. The abbreviations used in the list proper are printed 
here in Black-Faced Type, and are followed by the titles, names of authors' 
and years of publication. 

UNITED STATES PUBLICATIONS 

5th Rept. Ent. Com. U. S. Fifth Report of the United States Entomolog- 
ical Commission. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. By 
A. S. Packard. 1890. 

Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1895 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department 
' of Agriculture for 1895. The Shade Tree insect problem in the eastern 
United States. By L. O. Howard, pp. 361-384. 1896. 

Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1902 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture for 1902. Some of the principal insect enemies of coni- 
ferous forests in the United States. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 265-282. 
1903. 

Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1903 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture for 1903. Insects injurious to hardwood forest trees. 
By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 313-328. 1904. 

Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1904 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture for 1904. Insect injiiries to forest products. By A. D. 
Hopkins, pp. 381-398. The nut weevils. By F. H. Chittenden, 
pp. 299-310. 1905. 



40 FOREST PROTECTION 

Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1905 U. S. — Yearbook of the United States Department 

of Agriculture for 1905. Insect enemies of forest reproduction. By 

A. D. Hopkins, pp. i-iii and 249-256. 1906. 
Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1907 U. S. — Yearbook of the United States Department 

of Agriculture for 1907. Notable depredations by forest insects. By 

A. D. Hopkins, pp. i-iii and 149-164. 1908. 

Bulletins of the Bureau (Formerly Division) op Entomology, 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

Ent. Bui. No. 7 U. S. — Some miscellaneous results of the work of the Di- 
vision of Entomology. The ambrosia beetles of the United States. 
By H. G. Hubbard, pp. 9-30. Insect injuries to chestnut and pine 
trees in Virginia and neighboring states. By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 
67-75. 1897. 

Ent. Bui. No. 14 U. S.— The Periodical Cicada. By C. L. Marlatt. 1898. 

Ent. Bui. No. 21 U. S.— Preliminary report on the insect enemies of forests 
in the Northwest. By A. D. Hopkins. 1899. 

Ent. Bui. No. 28 U. S. — Insect enemies of the spruce in the Northwest. By 
A. D. Hopkins. 1901. 

Ent. Bui. No. 32 U. S. — Insect enemies of pine in the Black Hills. By A. D. 
Hopkins. 1902. 

Ent. Bui. No. 37 U. S. — Proceedings of the fourteenth annual meeting of 
the Association of Economic Entomologists. On the study of forest 
entomology in America. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 5-32. 1902. 

Ent. Bui. No. 38 U. S. — Some miscellaneous results of the work of the Di- 
vision of Entomology. Notes on the Rhinocerus Beetle. By F. H. 
Chittenden, pp. 28-32. 1902. 

Ent. Bui. No. 48 U. S. — Catalogue of exhibits of insect enemies of forest 

products at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Mo., 1904. 

By A. D. Hopkins. 1904. 
Ent. Bui. No. 53 U. S. — Catalogue of the exhibit of Economic Entomology 

at the Lewis and Clrak Centennial Exposition, Portland, Oregon, 1905. 

By Rolla P. Currie. 1904. 
Ent. Bui. No. 56 U. S.— The Black Hills Beetle. By A. D. Hopkins. 1905. 
Ent. Bui. No. 58 U. S. — Some insects injurious to forests. Parts I, II, and 

III. By A. D. Hopkins and J. L. Webb. 1906-07. 
Ent. Bui. No. 71 U. S.— The Periodical Cicada. By C. L. Martlatt. 1907. 

Circulars of the Bureau (Formerly Division) of Entomology of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

Ent. Cir. No. 24 U. S.— The Two-lined Chestnut Borer. By F. H. Chitten- 
den. 1897. 

Ent. Cir. No. 29 U. S.— The Fruit-tree Bark-beetle. By F. H. Chittenden- 
1898. 



FORESTIPROTECTION 41 

Ent. Cir. No. 55 U. S. — Powder-post injury to seasoned wood products. By 
F. H. Chittenden. 1903. 

Ent. Cir. No. 82 U. S. — Pinhole injury to girdled cypress in the South At- 
lantic and Gulf States. By A. D. Hopkins. 1907. 

Ent. Cir. No. 83 U. S. — The Locust Borer, and methods for its control. By 
A. D. Hopkins. 1907. 

Ent. Cir. No. 90 U. S.— The White-pine Weevil. By A. D. Hopkins. 1907, 

Ent. Cir. No. 96 U. S.— The Catalpa Sphinx. By L. O. Howard and F. H. 
Chittenden. 1907. 

Ent. Cir. No. 97 U. S.— The Bagworm. By L. O. Howard and F. H. Chit- 
tenden. 1908. 

Bulletins op the Forest Service (Formerly Bureau op Forestry) 

OP THE United States Department op Agriculture. 
For. Bui. No. 22 U. S. — The White Pine. Insect enemies of . By 

F. H. Chittenden, pp. 55-61. 1899. 
For. Bui. No. 31 U. S.— The Western Hemlock. Insects of the . By 

A. D. Hopkins, pp. 16-21. 1902. 
For, Bui. No. 38 U. S.— The Redwood. Insects of the . By A. D, 

Hopkms. pp. 32-40. 1903. 
For. Bui. No. 46 U. S. — The Basket Willow. Insects injurious to . 

By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 63-80. 1904. 

Other Publications op the United States Department op Agriculture. 
Far. Bui. No. 99 U. S. — Farmer's Bulletin No. 99. Three insect enemies 

of shade trees. By L. O. Howard. 1899. 
Far. Bui. No. 264 U. S.— Farmer's Bulletin No. 264. The Brown-tail Moth, 

and how to control it. By L. O. Howard. 1906. 
Far. Bui. No. 265 U. S.— Farmer's Bulletin No. 265. The Gipsy Moth, and 

how to control it. By L. O. Howard. 1907. 
F'ld. Pr'g'm. F'st. S'ce.-April, 1907, U. S.— Field Programme of the Forest 

Service for April, 1907. 

STATE PUBLICATIONS. 
New Jersey. 
Geol. Rept. for 1889. N. J. — Annual Report of the State Geologist of New 
Jersey for the year 1899. Part III. Report on Forests. The role 
of insects in the forest. By J. B. Smith, pp. 205-232. 1899. 
New York. 
G'de. L'fl't. No. 16 A. M. N. H.— Guide Leaflet No. 16, American Museum 
of Natural History. The insect galls of the vicinity of New York City_ 
By William Beutenmuller. 1904. 
Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 233 Cornell. — Cornell University. Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station of the College of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 233. De- 
partment of Entomology. Saw-fly leaf-miners on European elms and 
alders. By M. V. Slingerland. 1905. 



42 FOREST PROTECTION 

Ex. Sta. Bui, No. 234 Cornell. — Cornell University. Agriciiltural Experi- 
ment Station of the College of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 234. De- 
partment of Entomology. The Bronze Birch-borer. By M. V. Slinger- 
land. 1906. 

For. Rept. No. 4 N. Y. — Fourth annual report of the Commissioners of Fish- 
eries, Game, and Forests of the State of New York. Report for 1898. 
Insects injurious to maple trees. By E. P. Felt. pp. 367-395. 1899. 

For. Rept, No. 7 N. Y. — Seventh annual report of the Forest, Fish, and Game 
Commission of the State of New York. Report for 1901. Insects 
affectmg forest trees. By E. P. Felt. pp. 479-534. 1902. 

St. Mus. Bui, No, 53 N, Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 53. (En- 
tomology 14). 17th Report of the State Entomologist on injurioiis 
and other insects of the State of New York. By E. P. Felt. 1901, 

St. Mus. Bui. No. 103 N. Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 103. 
(Entomology 25). The Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths. By E. P. Felt. 
1906. 

St. Mus. Bui. No, 109 N, Y,— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 109. 
(Entomology 27). White-marked Tussock-moth and Elm Leaf-beetle. 
By E. P. Felt. 1907. 

St. Mus. Bui. No. 110 N. Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 110. 
(Entomology 28). 22nd Report of the State Entomologist on injur- 
ious and other insects of the state of New York. By E. P. Felt. 1907 

St, Mus, Mem. No. 8 N. Y. — New York State Museum Memoir 8. 2 vol- 
umes. Insects affecting park and woodland trees. By E. P. Felt. 
1905-06. 

Ohio. 

Ins. Bui. No. 7 Ohio, — Ohio Department of Agriculture. Division of Nur- 
sery and Orchard Inspection. Bulletin No. 7. The insects affecting 
the black locust and hardy catalpa. By E. C. Cotton. 1905. 
Pennsylvania. 

For. Rept. 1901-02 Penn. — Statement of work done by the Pennsylvania 
Department of Forestry during 1901 and 1902. 1902. 
West Virginia. 

Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 35 W. Va.— Bulletin of the West Virginia Agricultural 
Experiment Station No. 35. Defects in wood caused by insects. By 
A. D. Hopkins. 1894. 

Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 56 W, Va.— Bulletin of the West Virginia Agricultural 
Experiment Station No. 56. Report on investigations to determine 
the cause of imhealthy conditions of the spruce and pine from 1880 
to 1893. By A. D. Hopkins. 1899. 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. 

Comstock's Manual.- — Manual for the Study of Insects. By J. H. Com- 
stock. 1895. 

Ratzeburg Vol. III. — Die Forst-Insecten, volume III. By J. C. Ratzeburg. 
Berlin, 1844. 

The Forester for 1901. — The Forester. A periodical published by the Amer- 
ican Forestry Association at Washington, D. C. 






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l>l>l>t^ 










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^ 




322 • 


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^ d»-! 


»— t •. 


mom© 


etf 




fl|!= 




rt(M.-lrH 


tUO 




P>i1 






;3 


aS 






CO 








H 




(Sa«i 


llO 


1 1 1 1 


o 






100 
ItO 




<o 




, 1 


1 1 1 1 


bA 


o 


1 1 


1 1 1 1 






; 1 


i ! i ! 


Clj 


-iS 


' ' 


1 1 1 1 


« 


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OQ 


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■©■©■©■o 






mm 


mnnn 






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1 ! ! ! 




0) 


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1 I I '^ 

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M 








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Gnathotric 
Hylesinua 
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1 


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63 



54 



FOREST PROTECTION 



a, 
o 

V 

o 

(Si 

?t 

CO 

-t-> 
O 
'O 

SI 

CO 












+3 Ol-^ 



300 . 









ft) 



H « 



"o "o"© "o'o'o'o'o'o ^'o'o'o 



1 I 1 


13 1 




a 1 


1 t3 <u 


03 1 


6 <DI-^ 


S ' 


^1-^ « 




^«s 


3 1 













« so 
^ S g 



u pq 



j= o o4s g g;s s « f 

OOOc^^♦*^S;:sft 



FOREST PROTECTION 



55 



CM 
O 
0) 

•— I 

o 
,0 






n3 
OS 



0) 

<3 



OS 






fQ<^CQ 



C^*- 

H 



3CC . 



300 . 












it:^ 



en rH rt 1-1 05 i-H --I IM <N IN iH 



rt a 



"o 'o'o'o'o'o S'o'o'o o 



6^^ 






&9'S<s8S'& 



&d c g gt,S5 a p 



2" S2 2 S-e 
tSi; 5 S s;g www" 

a'S S S ° S, a »^ g 
lls^f.t §11 1 



56 



FOREST PROTECTION 



t3 

d 
si 



< 



4> 

bfl 

Q 



2 o . 

512; Iz; 






^:^^ 



:tz;;z; 



SCO . 
PQ"»OQ 

-t>' Oh-; 



■«■ Oh-; 





U5 1 


1 1 


t^ 1 


1 1 Th 


CO 1 



o 

•4 ^ 



,S .2 ^ ^ -e— ~ 
"o "o "o "o p*©"© 

m n pq n hmpq^ 



tf 3 



s 



I 1 t .2 
t^ fl, 05 ft< 



^ «>.S 






I I 

1 1 
S 1 



u 

■*•» 
Ph 

o 

9) 

"o 

O 
>^ 



^ 
M 



O 
OS 

H 



4) 

a 

ft 



izilz; 



^■2 



boo CO 

-tJ Oh-; 

1^^ 



f2 <^ 

3 .1-* 






!3« . 



300 . 






0) o>- 



6fi 



.H I I I I 1-1 I I 1« 

t. I I I I O I I >oo 
II I I (N I I IIN 



67 



(N 00 >-< 



t-tO OS ■* NO 

COW CO CO -^co 

Ot^.. - - 05 .'.lOlClO 

C0C0««O » «C CO 50 U5 T)< Tjl rH 



H « 



_«D ^ 43 QJ 

HMWfQ 



m m PQ 



q) © QJ © 03 

'o'o'o'o'o 
pQMWpqpQ 



2 



a 2 



T3 a l~ 8 



.S 8 



ag,-2.,« ft 



:§ 






S&ss"^ 



" W ^ k 



rs JO 



•a « 



3 


3 


•o 


s 


a 
2 


S 


u 


W 


CO 



58 



FOREST PROTECTION 



o 






o 

CO 



0) 
W) 

a 



300 . 



1^' 
fe 






SCO . 






300 . 






P4 & 



H« 



Wa 



FOREST PROTECTION 



69 





m 






















H 












u 


■^::i • 










15 


pq'^'QQ 


iH 1 


1 1 1 


[ 1 




E) 


M^ 


IN 1 


! 1 ! 


1 1 




h 
» 


H 




















Pi 


"st; . 








oi 

^ 


(M 


pqcooQ 


CO 1 


1 1 1 


[ 1 






<N 1 


1 1 1 


1 1 


■*-' 


1 








a, 


• 








o 


^ 


i^fS ■ 








S 




P5>Oo2 


it^ 


OMTtt 


00 00 






-p oi-; 


it>. 


t^t>t» 


l>t^ 


^ 


"3^ • 


■ ^ 


lOOC* 


MM 


2 






iN 


CO 


(NN 


§ 
•^ 




OS t 

O 1 


! : : 


I ; 






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t 1 1 


I 1 


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1 1 






1 1 


1 1 1 


1 1 


J3 




o 


1 1 


1 1 1 


1 1 


H 




fs 


; ; 


i i i 


: i 


s 




4 H 


[ [ 


1 1 1 


j [ 




''S: 


, , 


1 1 1 


1 , 




p 


L| fe 


a> o 


a o o 


o a 






p 








Oi 




02 


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■©"o"© 


■o'o 


^ 






MPQ 


wpqpq 


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1 u 




i i 


n 




S 




1 6^ 

0)1-1 o 


i ; 






o 
02 


S-S 


^^K 


: i 








11 


III 


e^e- 










« 1 1 


j [ 










;3 1 1 








IB 




►e M 00 








P 


■it 


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55 ' 








e.g. 8 


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O 


-g^ 


(i^ O O 


s- 








15 o 




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'SiB 


iss 


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oiaj 


1^0.0^ 


q.J 








a 


[ 










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d 


t 


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1 


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8 


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U 


m 


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60 



FOREST PROTECTION 






3C0 . 

pqusao 
+3 Oh-; 






^i^;" 



is 

OS 



■*« 



HCQ 



S*^ 



3 2 



S3 



FOREST PROTECTION 



61 









a 






<s 






Soo^ 






2 d . 


t> OS 

to CO 




+5 




o 
S 


OO 






1 N 




C'^'A 


1 lO 




fe 




(4 


"St^ . 




K 


fpfOjc 


CO 1 


^ 


i^p> 




^ 


w 








h) 


3W . 


O 1 
03 I 




(5 "5 CO 




,^l^ 


CO 1 
00 




W 




^ 






SCO , 






pq"*oQ 


CO 1 




■i^^ 


?5 ' 




1^ 




ti 






^d- 


1 o 




^^^ 




1 sw 







! ! 


_ ^ 


' ! 






e M 


' ' 


Pi H 


[ ! 


fe 


! 


Pk^ 










o 5 




n ^ 




4 i 


O 


J^ m 


H 
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fa „ 




s "i 








:s •« 


(a 


55. S 


o 






o 8 








i» -s 




in ft. 




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h) 


^ J 


1 






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U CO 















a 










lU 










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5 . 
1^^ 


OiO 








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^ 






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02 








-MrH 








2; 




N 1 
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H 


<!^ 
















^ 










H 


3 






2 






00 1 














O 
9i 


^ 
g 




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O 


h^ 








O 




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pqcoor. 


iCO 


. 








iC^ 


• 


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a 




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«t 




fP'^tn 


a 








^^^ 


CO - 

OS CO 

00 


00 


bX) 




H 






•g 


"Boo . 






3 








^ 


«H 




(x9 






OJ 










&. 




O 


















P 


iHfM 




» 


o 






o o 


o 








P3« 


m 


« 






S ' 




bJD 






fc 1 




oi 






a> 1 




Q 




M 

o 

«< 
02 


^fa 
II 


o 

1 






ID 


p. 


i 








^1 

is ° 


1 








« 


; 








■o 


















d 


&:. 


« 






fa 


1 


1 



62 



FOREST PROTECTION 





on 












H 












U 












fc; 












Oh 












s 










f^ 


<u 










m 
tf 


^'^>^ 


!■* 


• •-H r 








TO o > 


ICO 


100 1 






S 


|!2;lz; 


!■* 


ilO 1 






^ 










a 


►3 


S 








fc 


"^fS • 








o 




m'^02 


tHO 


lON 


] 






03 05 


I0»05 


'' 


"o 


^ 








o 






CO 00 


ICO'* 


; 


>> 




P^' 


coco 


ICO CO 


1 


Xi 






' 


' 






H 








ta 














^S 








'Sd 




^o- 


] [ 


lOiO 1 


OJ 




^^t^ 




coco 1 


cq 


3 




1 1 


COCO 1 


CO 


•— » 




2?W 








o 


o 


; 1 


1 1 1 




■*J 


^5 


1 [ 


1 1 1 




0) 


^ « 


' ' 


1 1 1 




W) 




(D D 


fjj 


<D 




& 




03 3 — 






cc 


■©"o 


(U E o 


"o 


TO 




fQfQ 


hif^m 


W 


P 




>i 1 


i i i 






M 
pq 










5 


-g^a 


a 

a 






i§ 


^|s 


3 




CO 


•&■§ 


•Slo 


e 






i'i 


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2 o>fe 








?3i C 


s s 2 








us^ 


e-Sa 


s 






1 1 


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a! 

H 

O 


J"^ 




a 




SB- 


^§"2 
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a 


3 


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CS 




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u 


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3 


u 






1 


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ca 









(^•^(NOi !'-< I I i-H 1-1 05 "-1 05 COIN 
COCOCCO iCO I it^t^cOTOlQ CO"* 



liOO I lO 



<1^ 



P5oo>-s 









fP .02 









300 . 

fp'^co 









o 
« a 



05 105 05 



00 100 00 
CO ICO CO 



MM 



<l; Qj O;.^ 0) (D as QJ (D 

o'o'o ^'o'o'o'o'o So 






o"© 
MM 






,^ O fl> 3J 

^'o'o'o 






63 



-^O^ 



e cj3 133 



r- -'car Q^ C3 ''J i^c fyj Lij 

fee r*.S-S 









s-^ 



Stss 






g « e R. 
•S 3 e s 



; 0-75 ra 



M U § 

S t. w 



S-g 



s§- 






§00 §^t 












64 



Oh 
O 

Xi 

Oh 



3 

Oh 
O 









CO o o 



^23 



1^' 

[X4 









^" Oi-; 



32 . 









^"5 



I O 100 CO 



H 03 



_co_2_g_2 
'o'o'o'o 

nnnn 



« ij 



(U 0) s 



S o S o 



O 






a.S- 



2 8 8 

ii II 1 « 

1^ £ 8 8^0 



•S a 8 

Tj § g 
5 8 8 






3 o 

n CO 



& 



FOREST PROTECTION 



65 







Q 
























§00 K^ 
















•* 1 

^ 1 








4J 












m 










_; 












"3 












W^s 












CO "3 












^<^ S 












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moo 




C3 1 








.^"J 












M 












W 










DO 












O 


CQO • 










S^ 






N ( 


O 1 1 










CT 1 

CO 1 


(M 1 1 

CO 1 1 




» 


<■" 










p^ 


_; 










s 


3 CO 








2 




6h 


1 


t- 1 

CD 1 




cu 










o 




"pM . 




t> 1 

05 1 




<i> 




(5*^02 


[ 




o 






' 




opoci> 


>> 


^ 








^ 




^^92 ■ 


; 


00 1 
CO 1 










, 




iO'*IC0 


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1 




C<1<Mt-i 


S^ 




W 








(a 


















CO 

00 


no 

100 


ill 


PQ 




Sh 








o 


o 




i ; 


1 1 1 


+j 






1 1 


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<o 


rt H 




[ j 


1 1 


bJO 


<; S 




1 , 


1 ?! 1 


Oj 


fh 6; 


<D 


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« 




"o 


'o'o 

mm 


"o P'o 

mnm 








i i : 










■^ 1 1 




aj 




J >• 


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m 




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o 




u 


gM 


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02 


CO 
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SCO 


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1 ] 


1 w e 










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00 




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e 


1 o 


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66 























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tesselaris S. & A._. 

americana Harr... 

leucostigma S. & A. 

pyrina Linn. 

vemata Peck 




O 


Euvanessa 

Polygonia 

Ceratomia 

Halisidota 

Halisidota 

Apatela 

Hemerocampa.. 

Zeusera 

Paleacrita 


3 




H 

^ 

s 

^ 


8 i I i i 1 « 
1 '^ :•§ Ilia 

«? r& S te Jj U CO 







CO 

o 

15 

i 
1 

t 

^3 


"^ o . 
m 


to 1 1 05 ■ 00 


1 
< 

1 
1 

1 

< 


'7 




g!2;0' 


t^ iH 05 (N<0 OS 
(M ■* CO >-<C0 >H 






1 1 1 ■* I I 
1 1 1 ■* c 1 
1 1 1 1> 1 1 






1 1 II 1 




7- 00 CO 


1 10 00 II 1 
1 t^ «D 1 1 1 
1 CO CO 11 1 




9 o ei 


1 II I 
t^ 1 rH II 1 
CO 1 M II 1 


2 

o 




1 1 00 1 1 1 
1 1 CO II I 
1 1 M ■ . . 




a) 


1 1 1 Th 1 1 

1 1 1 (N 1 I 


V) 

i 


3a> . 

pqWcQ 


1 <N 1 1 I 
1 "^ ? 1 1 1 


3co . 
f^ioco 

c;2;P 


■* 1 1 1 1 1 
00 1 1 1 1 ' 


o 

GCS 


3oo . 
a'zP 


00 1 1 II ' 
(N 




10 ■* (N CO 1 05 
to •<ll «D >0 1 "5 
CO N gl 1 CO 




Ss 


; 1 1 ^ 1 1 

1 I ! ■? ! 1 
1 1 1 ^S I 

s s s "^-s ^ 

H^ h:? vq pqm H 






o 


1 \ < II i 

! \ ^ ! i =• 

^ -t ea 1 

•1 i 1 II 1 








§ •§ t 1 i i 
1 1 i l« 1 

K) in te! ft;^ fiq 








iiii 1 

lu •- -2 S & 

to r^ CO IH 

W ^ 3 5 5 







88 


ci 

o 

'2 

d. 

CO 

tH 

o 

<J 

o 

03 

bJO 


00 

o 
iz; 

H 


SoOkJ 

go 

m 


rHCO r~ CO lOOO N U5 to «0 rH 
(MO] CO IM (MCO CO t~ O U3 •* 
»0»0 »0 *0 UJIO T-( fH wj 






"3 
«co . 

OQ 


i ; i 1 i i i :s ! ! ! 
II 1 1 11 1 t^ 1 1 1 






"3 

OQ 


11 1 1 1 1 CO 1 1 1 I 




s 

< 






! I ! 1 1 1 (X) 1 1 1 1 

1 CO 1 1 1 1 

op t 1 1 1 


1 






I ! 1 1 1 1 1 o 1 1 1 

II 1 1 11 1 CO 1 1 1 




1 .""3 
AM 3 
o Si « 


rH , 05 1 tHCO O 1 1 1 >C 
lO 1 ■* 1 003 tH 1 1 1 IC 

CO 1 CO 1 cool CO 1 1 1 e^ 


1 




fa 


I 1 1 1 1 1 00 o ■* ■* 1 

II 1 1 1 1 CO (» t^ 00 1 

11 1 1 ilCOCOMCO 1 


b 

< 




fa 


1 ! 1 I 1 I (M ! 1 1 1 

1 tH 1 1 1 1 


1 




■^co . 
*: Of-; 


itH 1 U5 coco 1 00 1 1 1 
100 1 00 0000 1 05 1 1 1 


< 

to 




3oo . 
pq^oQ 


ICO 1 05 05(35 1 O 1 1 1 
i(N 1 (N (MIM 1 -"Jl 1 1 1 


1 




tf 


■^O Ol «5 t-.<M 0] 1 r^ ! 00 

CJJO 05 CD C350 CO 1 tH I O 
CO-* CO Ol CO-* Ol 1 rt 1 ■* 






O 


11 1 1 11 1 m 1 1 1 
1 1 1 1 1 I 1 U) , , , 

i ! ; ! ! 1 : '^ 1 ! 1 

• ; ; ; 1 ; ; H ; 1 ; 

com tn aj row rooW m i ai 
q5q3 q^ a) OJOJ QJ^ V 1 flJ 

>>>>>>> ^ > ,a > 
Q^O) m (u a>a> o) o o) o a; 


1 
< 




IH 


io Fab 

rubicunda Fab 

tesselaris S. & A... 

americana Harr... 
lunata Dru 

leucostigma S. & A. 

pyrina Linn. 

disstria Hubn 

acerni Clem 

acerifoliella Fitch. 


1 




CD 
O 


Automeris 

Halisidota 

Apatela 

Homoptera 

Hemerocampa _ _ 

Zeuzera 

Malacosoma 

Aegeria 

Incurvaria 


< 

1 








8i' a ' 1 J ! ' i ' ' ' 


S3 

m 

< 

•-< 




89 



90 



FOREST PROTECTION 





















a 














lU 














2 o . 














00 oc 


i^ 










1^^ 




«3 










-p 














m 












-Mu5 














pqo3 . 














T-oooo 












m 
o 








CO 




















i?l 












?" 




■* 








1^ 


o5 S 




lO 


IM 










CO 


CO 




ccS 


■flOl . 












^ 

ei 

a 


pqoscB 






O 
IN 




o 


h^ 


[^ 










T3 


^ 










•IS 




3M . 










E^ 




fpOcc 






• 




4> 




+3 Ol-^ 


00 00 




1 




>> 




W 






















^ 




"soo . 




1 


. 




P< 




M^ 


00 00 


1 


i 




(0 




W 










CO 

g 


^6- 


1 1 


lO 


■* 




•^ 

« 




^^=^ 




(M 


(N 








iSl 















1 \ 












^; 


' • 








o 

W) 




n 

(1 


5 


> > 


> 


> 






& 


ca d 


03 


<A 




ctf 




m 


^>3 


^ 


^ 




« 




m 














Ai 


2 8 


^ci 


Q 








OQ 


11 


1 


i 














\ 














1 


3 






IQ 














p 


e 1 


Q 


£ 


"S 








in 


1 


-IS 


1 








it 


^ 


1 


< 








iJCO 


i3 


tQ 








1 


•1 
a 

1 


."3 

"3 

IH 

3 

CO 







FOREST PROTECTION 



91 



o 

• 1-H 

Ph 

a 



P4 



s 
^ 

H 

a 




Ins. Bui. 
No. 7 
Ohio 


^ 


Parts 
Suffering 




CO 

3 
) 


1 

3 

1 


oo 

p 

O 


.8 

o 
a 






i 

•a 

a 

3 

p< 

CO 



92 



FOREST PROTECTION 



l^^ 




o o Si 



s s 



FOREST PROTECTION 



93 















a 










« 










.*> 










to o • 


00 








1^^ 


'^ 








^ 








to 


02 








y^ 








O 

'Ph 




CO 






g 


^a 








Pi 


< 








„ 








(H 


a mK 


.-{ 




u 




^ ^ 

^■^1 


IM 




^j 








Oi 


t3 


"3^ . 






o 

d 

a 




(5 "^02 


05 

CO 




§ 


m*cQ 


(M 




^ 






CO 




di 


^i . 






Oh 




^^^. 


OJ 




•S 




^t 


00 




*Vh 




iSH 






oi 








h-) 


o 






B 




s 




V 




•3 


o 
^ 


U) 


OQ 


0) 


1 


g 




1 


1 


ctf 




4^ 


S 


Q 


CD 


§ 


n 




M 


W 


<5 




o 








m 


'■^ 






!h 


S 






m 


1 








1 


« 








s 






s 






CO 


1 .. 


1 




a 


S " 


fe; 




O 


1 


< 






« 








"2 














►< 


a 






t:i 


^ 






g 


2 








ja 






fe 


1 










H 





94 



FOREST PROTECTION 





















o 








.."■eS 




■* III 






n 






CO , 1 ; 






o 




ifl III 

P3 III 






« 












• 










i« 


3 
















■-1 lO 1 1 






t 


"*^ o • 




CO IN 1 1 




(H 




"^l^ 




■* ■* 1 1 




u 


K 


M 








-2 


m 


W 








Oh 

o 


"^fS • 








a 




pq"=oQ 




1 030i05 




<D 








1 05030 




I 




















W 






; 


1 ooo 




^ 




-tJ Ok-,' 


' 






d 


"SS 












^5- 


00 


1 OiCfi 1 




nJ 




^^^ 


CO 
00 


1 coco 1 
1 l>t» 1 




a> 




ioW 














1 III 




P^ 







1 III 




o 


en « 




1 III 




-4-> 


?g 


s 


1 II! 




a> 


(^g 


■s 


jo JS££ 




W) 






00 


(S 


"o "©"o"© - 




a 




Iz; 


PQ WWffl 








u ' ' 




ci 






** ^ '1 




« 


05 

o 
» 

02 


02 


sylvanicus 

minalis H 
ornis Fab. 
pennis Kb; 








Qi 








gl 


S 6 o'-* 








.8 


iiii 










§ III 






z 


fio 


"8 to « « 






H 


S 


S ?3 2S 3 






o . 




§, Is S S 


d 






s 




Q 








§ s. s. s. 






^ 


bbt) 


++ 






jl^ 1 


8 ' 








■3 1 


•n 1 






(5 




■3 « 
o ^; 








1 


H 


(k to 







FOREST PROTECTION 
Damage to Populus spp. by Hymenoptera 


95 


Family 


Genus 


Species 


Parts 
Suffering 


Literary References 


For. Bui. 
No. 46 

U.S. 


St. Mus. Mem. 
No. 8 
N. Y. 




ithredinidae 




integer Nort 

ventralis Say 


Twigs 

Leaves 


68 
70 


302 
322 




Pteronus 




Damage to Alnus glutinosa by Hymenoptera 


Family 


Genus 


Species 


Parts 

Suffering 


Literary References 


Ex. Sta. I 
No. 233 
Cornell 


$ul. 




tthredinids 


Kaliosphinga — 


dohrnii Tischb 


Leaves 


58 





















96 















a 










(U 










^°^>; 










w 6 . 


00 1 








1^^ 


3 1 


5D 






^ 










02 








^ 




















cScO . 








to 


1 < 








i.""^ 








o 


9 " fl 


00 1 


lO 






S 1 


3 




m 

fa 








cJ 


0._u . 






Oh 








05 

oo 


O 

d 


69 


fa 












a> 


S 


-i:> 






a 


5 


id^: 






>, 




O 1 




w 




fa 


CO 1 




>% 










^ 






; ; 




CO 




-ij Ok-; 


i ' 


03 
05 




_• 






«3 




300 . 






3 




pq^cQ 


] [ 




O 

3 




-t! Of-; 


' ' 


o 








C 




ta 






o 




^5«i 


■* CO 


CT> 


-^ 




^^^ 


o o 


t^ 






rH IN 


CO 






ioW 





















o2 


I \ 






E 
P 










P 


-ift 


. !> 


qj 






& 


OQ c^ 








CQ 


^ ^ 


"o 
pq 








^ ' 


1 








>3 ! 


1 








a 1 


1 






00 


a m 


fl 






H 


a 








tn 








O 


>) (P 


13 






H 


u u 








111 


a o 


e 






CQ 




1 
1 






(0 


o { 








Z 


"S e 








a 


If 
II 


8 
1 






(H 


1 : 


i 






jj 


«j'=3 i 








fa 


•11 « 

a a 
>>« 
OH 


in 



97 













a 








o 








s«^ 








11^ 


O IC(N 






03 >OCO 






^• 








to 






• 








3 








PQco- 






tc 


.SS"® 






H 


tS=^ s 


' '2 




O 


-t^ • t. 


1 i-rJH 




g 


02 O O 






» 


-.'^'^ 






K 


y, 








W 




a 


i.'^'o? 




^ 


^ 


III 


1 (M 1 


o 




1 CO 1 


C! 


_jj 




0) 




a.^ . 






»3 




(N 1 1 


w 




O 1 1 


>, 


"3 CO 




^ 












1 W 1 
1 t^ 1 


m 




[X4 










m 




"3^^ . 




^ 




fqi^oo 


1 1 


B 






t (32 1 

1 CO 1 


P 




H 






• 




o 




300 . 


1 (M 1 


a> 




-li Ok-; 


1 CO 1 


W) 




W 




cd 




1 1 1 


a 




1 1 1 




CD » 




Eh K 

5P 


1 n 03 




-< |i| 


, to 4) 




FM£ 


o > t> 




p 


-2 c3 (S 




OQ 


O (U (B 




^Ir 


li 4 i 




•S i ' 




ID 

g 


/3 a> 1 




5 


3 e-e 




s 


S s S 




a< 


8 c3 3 




CQ 


hercule 

americ 
ulmi S 






1 8 






00 cs 




p 


s , s. 




z 


2 1^ 




H 


§ «§• 




O 


1 |l 






8.i ; 




TS-O 1 




EC4 


s5s 




k< a a 






O 4> 








C«H 



98 



FOREST PROTECTION 



u 

0) 

-4-> 

Ph 

o 
a 

I 

W 
>> 

Ph 
P4 







a 




« 




^_oo^- 








M^^ 


CO 






CO 




.-"■^ 




Boa 




•o 


50 


^j 






en 


g^a 


CO 


fe 1 






3M . 




(5"'CQ 




«'|f^ 


05 
05 


H 1 


• 




352 • 




fq-^co 




-P Oh-: 


o 


W 




^§ 




^O- 


o> 


^^^ 





SH 



bJO 

s 



^1 E? 



FOREST PROTECTION 



99 



::^:z; 




100 




FOREST PROTECTION 


I 

i 


Damage to Hicoria spp., 


by Diptera 










Literary References 








■p ._-_,„ 




Family 


Genus 


Species 


SUFFEBING 


G'de. L'flet. 

No. 16 
A. M. N. H. 




Cecidomyiidse 


Cecidomyia 


carycBCola 0. S 


Leaves 


27 






Cecidomyia 


holotricha O. S 


Leaves 


26 






Cecidomyia 


tubicola O. S 


Leaves 


27 







Damage to Quercus spp., 


by Diptera 


1 




Genus 


Species 


Parts 
Suffering 


Literary References M 


Family 


5th Kept. 

Ent. Com. 

U. S. 


G'de. L'flet. 

No. 16 
A. M. N. H. 


1 


Cecidomyiidae 


Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 


niveipila 0. S 

pilulos Walsh 

poculum O. S 


Leaves 

Leaves 

Leaves 


206" 


31 
30 
30 


i 



Damage to Liriodendron spp. by Diptera 





Genus 


Species 


Parts 
Suffering 


Literary References 


Family 


G'de. L'flet. 

No. 16 
A. M. N. H. 




Cecidomyiidae 


Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 


liriodendri O. S 

tulipifera 0. S 


Leaves 

Leaves 


25 
25 




Damage to Cornus florida by Diptera 




Genus 


Species 


Parts 

Suffering 


Literary References 


Family 


G'de. L'flet. 

No. 16 
A. ,M. N. H. 




Cecidomyiidae 


Cecidomyia 


clavula Beuten 


Twigs 


29 





Damage to Acer spp. by Diptera 





Genus 


Species 


Parts 

Suffering 


Literary References 


Family 


5th Rept. 

Ent. Com. 

U. S. 


G'de. L'flet. 

No. 16 
A. M. N. H. 




MycetophilidEe 


Sciara 


ocellata 0. S 


Leaves 


411 


33 





FOREST PROTECTION 



101 







a 












(U 












^°°>' 












TO o > 


cq 1 1 


a> 1 r 








1^^ 


05 1 1 


(N 1 1 
(N 1 1 








4^ 












CO 










_; 












"3 












Mco . 














2 1 1 










"^ 1 1 










^i^ 


O 1 1 










^s 










m 


02 




















H 


1 .■= 03 










f5 


Hod 


iil 


f~ 1 1 

t-t 1 1 


^ 




„• 








CIj 


p^ 
s 


C3 .^ 




(NIMIN 


IN 


^ 
H 


-*^ o • 




lOCilO 


O 


u 


=°l^ 






■* 


+J 


H 


><' 








.&• 


;3 


w 








^ 


|^>H- 


U^ 1 1 


r-4 1 1 


, 


w 




. o . 


O 1 1 
U3 1 1 


U5 1 1 


I 


>, 




fa 








Xi 






1 1 1 


, , 


, 


CO 




fa 


1 i ; 


;o 1 1 


] 


M 










§ 




O ifO 


lO 1 1 




s 




^^^ 


rt lO 
00 100 


O 1 1 
00 1 1 


■* 
t^ 


o 




Sh 










C5 


:a : 

I'r* 1 


1 ', ! 




4> 




n i' 


^ 


1 1 




bO 


1 


22 


'H , 


1 1 1 






1 




JogJ 


— mm 


03 


p 


H & 


M ©"0 


-5 M bjO 


bO 


ci 




;g 


^ o OJ 


(D fi ^ 


■^ 


Q 






Hfq;^ 


^HH 


H 








■^ 1 1 


1 ! 1 


j 








o ] , 


-3 1 1 


1 






CQ 

M 


fa 1 ! 


-2 1 1 

fa 1 : 


>> 

S 






fa 


|Wfa 


•i '< '< 

*0 1 1 


a 








•S-0.0 


:§. 1 ! 


"H 








■ggg 


e ' ' 


^ 








aww 


Re-e- 


a, 










*' 1 «' 


e 






(0 

Z 

O 




S S o 




















OOi-q 


Oi^ft^ 


^ 






5 




«' 
s 








fa 


3 


u 










p. 


o 


4) 








< 


O 


u 



102 



FOREST PROTECTION 















a 










0) 










^00 • 










. .w 










2 ■ 


05 1 






05 
O 


1^^ 


00 1 






z 


^ 








» 


m 








^ 








&, 


3 








^ 


03 f*^ 


(M 1 


IM 




!h 


■^ d • 


>o 1 









^1^ 


■* 1 


•* 


^ 


« 


>^" 










W 












■M 


(3 








C^ 


3C0 . 










pq"'a! 


[ 


[ 








105 
lt> 


1 


w 




W 






















>. 




poo • 


, 


, 


,a 






iCO 


I 


Ph 




W 








■aa 






ai 




tfo«; 


m 1 


i 






^^^ 


lO 1 

op 1 


1 


s 




Sw 








, , 


1 


o 





; ; 


1 


-*-> 


B 3 








' < 


1 


4) 


M W 


' ' 


' 


W) 

a 




faD bO 


Si 


p 






ctf 




, , 




« 




'2 






m 


I"© 






S) 


aA 






3 


S*^ 








'^ s 






OQ 
















"S *- 
















:s| 








e w 


ff-» 




00 








P 




s 




Z 


tel « 


^ 




H 


S S 






■O 




§ 






















<"C 


■< 






00 


as 




(H 


; 








i 
."2 


fli 




•3 


12 




fe 


'a 


*3 







p. 









1 


< 


u 





FOREST PROTECTION 
Damage to Juglans spp. by Hemiptera 


103 


Family 


Genus 


Species 


Parts 
Suffering 


Literary References 


Geol. Rept. 

for 1899 

N.J. 




ccidse 




y 


Twigs - - - 


210 












Damage to Hicoria spp. by Hemiptera 


Family 


Genus 


Spbcies 


Parts 
Suffering 


Literary References 


Geol. Rept. 

for 1899 

N.J. 


Guide Leaflet 

No. 16 
A. M. N. H. 


St. Mus. Mem' 
No. 8 
N. Y. 


jhididae 

)ccidae 


Phylloxera - 
Lecanium.- 


cary 
sp.- 


cBcaulis Fitch. 


Lvs. & Twigs 
Tw «■« 


209 
210 




38 


331 

















Damage to Alnus spp. by Hemiptera 





Genus 


Species 


Parts 
Suffering 


Literary References 


Family 


5th Rept. 
Ent. Com. 

U.S. 


Com- 
stock's 
Manual 


St. Mus. Mem. 
No. 8 
N. Y. 




phididse 


Pemphigus 


tessellatus Fitch.— 


Lvs. & Twigs 


1637 


U61 


195 





lAs Schizoneura tessellata. 

Damage to Fagus spp. by Hemiptera 





Genus 


Species 


Parts 
Suffering 


Literary References 


Family 


Com- 
stock's 
Manual 




phididse 


Schizoneura 


imbricator Fitch. _. 


Lvs. & Twigs 


161 





104 



FOREST PROTECTION 



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FOREST PROTECTION 



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Damage to Uhnus spp. by Hemiptera 






Genus 


Species 


Parts 
Suffering 


LiTEHAET References 


Family 


St. Mus. Mem. 
No. 8 
N. Y. 




Uphididae 

^occidae 


Callipterus 

Schizoneura 

Colopha 

Chionaspis 

Gossyparia 


ulmifolii Monell._ 
americana Riley. ^ 
ulmicola Fitch 

americana Johns.. 
spuria Mod 


Leaves 

Leaves 

Leaves 

Bole & Twigs 
Bole & Twigs 


176 
177 
186 

207 
203 





Family 



Joccidse. 



Damage to Liriodendron spp. by Hemiptera 



Genus 



Eulecanium. 



Species 



tulipiferae Cook. 



Parts 

Suffering 



Twigs. 



Literary References 



Geol. Rept. 

for 1S99 

N.J. 



1210 



St. Mus. Mem. 
No. 8 
N. Y. 



208 



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FOREST PROTECTION 
Damage to Various Woods by Isoptera 




107 


Family 


Genus 


Species 


Pabts 
Suffehing 


Literary References 


Ag.Yr.Bk. 

for 1904 

U. S. 


St. Mus. Mem. 
No. 8 
N. Y. 




Termitids 


Leucotermes 


flavipes Koll 


seas'n'd wood 


»389 


187 




lAs Termes. 

Damage to Various Conifers by Orthoptera 


Family 


Genus 


Species 


Parts 
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Literary References 


For. Rept. 

No. 7 
N. Y. 


Com- 
stock's 
Manual 




Giyllidse 


Gryllotalpa 

Gryllus 

Oecanihus 


borealis Burm. 

spp 

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Rts. nurse'ies 
Rts. nurse'ies 
Leaves 


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FOREST PROTECTION 109 



CHAPTER III: PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS. 



Par. 6. Protection Against Weeds. 

Weeds are plants, herbaceous or lignaceous in character, the pre- 
Bence of which in the woods is financially undesirable. 

A. Influencing Factors. 

I. A plant may appear as a weed in one locality whilst 
it is useful in another. Kalmia, e. g., is useful 
on steep slopes by holding the soil; whilst it is 
harmful on areas in regeneration. Grasses and 
herbaceous weeds are valuable on forest pas- 
tures; they may interfere, however, with natural 
regeneration from seeds. 

II. A plant may be considered as a weed at a certain 
stage of certain sylvicultural operations. This 
is the case with black gum, witch hazel, box 
elder, halesia which forms a superstructure in- 
terfering with the regeneration of yellow poplar, 
chestnut, and yellow pine. On the other hand, 
these same species may be valuable as an un- 
dergrowth or as a companion growth with yel- 
low poplar, chestnut, pine and oak after the 
thicket stage. 

III. A plant of a usually valuable kind may be classed 
as a weed when it is hopelessly deformed; e. g., 
decrepit, hollow, burned chestnuts; fire shoots 
of hickory and oak. 

Thus the forester might distinguish between "ab- 
solute weeds," which are always damaging, and 
"relative weeds," which are damaging only 
under a given set of conditions. 

B. Most weeds injure the forest only indirectly. Direct damage is 

done by parasitic weeds, in rare cases. The most note-worthy 
cases of indirect injury are the following: 

I. Smilax, grapevine, blackberry interfere with the 
transportation of wood goods and with the ease 
of access to the woods. 

II. Sedge grass, heather, blueberry form a matting through 
which water or air cannot pass. 



110 FOREST PROTECTION 

III. The mineral fertility of the soil is absorbed by the 

weeds (especially the fruiting weeds) competing 
with the trees for a food supply. 

IV. The weeds, notably those produced after fires, inter- 

fere with the natural regeneration of the best 
species of the forest; they prevent, through dense 
shade, the lignification of the valuable seed- 
lings during summer. Instances are: Chinqua- 
pin and gum in the case of yellow pine regener- 
ation at Biltmore; witch hazel, dogwood in yel- 
low poplar regeneration in Pisgah forest; black 
jack oak in long leaf pine forests. 
V. Some weeds distort and oppress the seedlings and 
saplings after climbing to their tops. Grape- 
vine on yellow poplar; Convolvulus on many 
tree seedlings. In tropical coimtries, the tree 
climbers (sometimes parasitic) are particularly 
troublesome, notably in felling trees. 
VI. Certain weed species (notably Ericacce) produce, 
through their leaf fall, an unfavorable, dusty 
humiis. 
VII. Weeds harbor and hide mice and damaging insects. 

VIII. Dead weeds increase the danger of fires, especially 
in the spring. 

IX. The dead mould spread on the ground by many weeds 
prevents the germinating seed of valuable species 
from sending its rootlets into the mineral soil. 
X. Certain weeds play an important part in the path- 
ology of the trees, the weeds acting as hosts 
for the second generation of certain fungi. 
C. Means of Protection. 

I. Preventive measures. 

a. Maintain a complete cover overhead — 

a pious wish in the primeval forests. 

b. Underplant light demanding species with 

shade bearers at a time at which 
the leaf canopy overhead, through 
friction of crown against crown, be- 
comes excessively open — another 
pious wish under the present con- 
ditions confronting American silvi- 
culture. 

c. Work towards immediate reforestation 

after making a clean sweep of the 
old crop. 



FOREST PROTECTION 111 

d. Insist on thorough protection against 

ground fires which, above all, foster 
the growth of weeds and are in- 
jurious to the nobility amongst the 
forest species. Kalmia, chinquapin, 
alder, soft maple, gum, halesia ob- 
tain the upper hand in the forest 
through fires. On fertile soil the 
growth of annual and biennial weeds 
after fires is especially luxuriant. In 
the Adirondacks, the reforestation 
of fire-swept tracts is handicapped 
by the excessive growth of forest 
weeds. 

e. Admit for pasture cattle, hogs, sheep 

and goats, thus checking at the 
same time the danger from fires, 

II. Restrictive Measures. 

a. Cut (with a mowing scythe) herbaceous 

weeds before the seed ripens. 

b. In forest plantations, cultivate the rows 

of plants, or raise farm crops to- 
gether with seedlings. 

c. Plow abandoned fields thorouglhy before 

reforestation. 

d. Crush blackberry briars; decapitate ferns; 

skin thorns; deaden gum, dogwood, 
maple, beech; remove the bark for 
2 ft. above the stump on cotton- 
woods to prevent the growth of root 
suckers. 

e. Cover the stiunps of undesirable hard- 

woods with dirt or brush; poison the 
stumps; peel the stimips down into 
the roots; set fire to brush heaps 
massed upon such stumps in cop- 
pice woods. 
D. Weed Species. 

I. Andromeda, huckleberry, etc., are expelled by the 
continued use of a briar scythe, preferably in 
early August. Valuable seedlings are planted 
on reversed sods when placed in thickets formed 
by the above species. 



112 FOREST PROTECTION 

II. Kalmia and Rhododendron may be checked by burn- 
ing. They sprout luxuriantly after such burn- 
ing. They do not catch up, however, with the 
more rapid development of the seedlings planted 
at the same time. In other cases, it is better 
to allow ivy and laurel to grow unharmed. The 
stems when over 4" in diameter can be dead- 
ened readily. 

III. Chinquapin may be deadened with crushing tongs 

in spring. 

IV. Dogwood may be deadened. Dogwood sprouts grow 

vigorously from the stumps; hence it will not 
suffice to cut the dogwood with an axe. 
V. Large trees of black gum are skinned or deadened. 

It is impossible to get rid of small shoots. 
VI. Hazel, Vaccinium and Azalea on moimtain pastures 
can be checked by the use of a colter, by re- 
peated mowings or, possibly, by pasturing goats. 
VII. Blackberry is expelled by crushing its shoots or by 
skinning them between two pieces of timber. 
VIII. Ferns should be decapitated in early spring. 
IX. Climbers (Clematis, Vitis, Ampelopsis and others) are 
checked by cutting close to the ground. 



FOREST PROTECTION 113 

Par. 7. Protection Against Fungi. 

The diseases of our American trees caused by fungi have been studied by 
Dr. Hermann von Schrenk, of the Shaw School of Botany. Still, it must 
be admitted that our knowledge of the diseases of trees induced by cryp- 
togamic parasites is deficient or inadequate. In the forest, obviously, the 
present conditions confronting forestry do not allow of "tree doctoring." 
Nurseries and young plantations in which fungi may cause enormous dam- 
age are practically absent from our forests. Fungi directly causing the 
death of trees, of over 12 inches d.b.h., are practically unknown. 

^ Saplings and poles killed by fungi die from below, whilst those killed 
by insects die from above. 

A. Effect of Fungus Infection. 

Observations in the United States are at hand only with re- 
ference to fungi of a technically damaging character. 

Such fungi may cause : — 

I. Disintegration of lignin, leaving the shining white 
fibres of cellulose untouched. 

II. Disintegration of cellulose leaving a brittle brown 
mass resem.bling charcoal. 

III. Disintegration of entire cell walls, leaving a hole 

or holes. 

IV. Liquification of the rosin incrustating the heart- 

wood, in which case the rosin exudes at branch 
holes where it solidifies by oxidation, forming 
knots, galls or streaks of rosin. 

B. Parts of Tree Infected; and Methods of Infection. 

Fimgi may attack the heartwood, or the sapwood, or 
both heartwood and sapwood. Heartwood fimgi (which never 
kill a tree directly) enter through insect mines; through axe 
scars; through branch stubs having heartwood, or through 
tops broken off by snow, by sleet, by falling neighbors or by 
Storm. For the latter reason, diseased timber prevails fre- 
quently along wind swept ridges and shores. 

Sapwood fungi may use the same channels of access, or 
may enter the wood through lightning streaks and through 
fire clefts. Sapwood resists the attack of fungi much better 
than heartwood as long as the tree lives. The sapwood is the 
life zone of the tree in which it defends itself readUy, by thick- 
ening its cell walls or by cell wall incrustations, or by form- 
ing cork against the spread of hyphse. 

In dead trees, on the other hand, sapwood decomposes 
much more readily than heartwood owing to the absence of 

F 



114 FOREST PROTECTION 

incrustating substances and owing to the presence of more 
moisture, more starch and more albumen. 

The insects co-operate with the fungi to an unknown ex- 
tent. Corky bark being fungus-proof, many spores enter the 
galleries of boring insects either carried by the wind or car- 
ried in the "fur" of borers and enemies of borers. It might 
be stated that the insects distribute spores in the same man- 
ner in which the birds or the rodents distribute seeds. A par- 
ticularly interesting case is that of "Ambrosia," a fungus 
supposed to be raised by the Ambrosia beetles. Cyllene ro- 
binise makes possible the inroads of Polyporus rimosus. Dis- 
coloration of the sapwood coincides with the attacks of Den- 
droctonus frontalis and follows the "steamships" in oak lum- 
ber. A fungus-lawn is foimd in the mines of Lymexylon. 

Infection is performed 

(a) most frequently by spores, 

1. in dew or rain (notably — the lower fimgi); 

2. by wind (notably — the higher fungi); 

3. by insects (rarely, after Tubeuf); 

4. by forcible ejection of spores from sporocarps, asci 
and sporangia. 

(b) more rarely by mycelium, 

1. notably when the myceliimi lives in the earth, or rather 
in the roots {Trametes radiciperda, Agaricus melleus "(Rhizo- 
morphs)"; 

2. also above groimd, the mycelium spreading from plant 
to plant {Trichosphceria, Herpotrichia). . 

Many fungi appear immediately after the affection of 
the tree by other detrimental influences (e. g. after insects, 
fire, storm, drought), so that it is possible to decide upon the 
immediate cause of damage inflicted only by the test of arti- 
ficial infection. The fungi found present upon a dead tree 
can never be considered, eo ipso, as tree killers. 

In many cases the mycelium of the tree killer has dis- 
appeared when the tree is dead; and only sporocarps may be 
still present. Many parasites on the other hand develop 
sporocarps only saprophytically on a dead substratum. 

Certain timber fungi stop work at once when the tree is 
cut, e. g., the yellow rot fungus of black locust and the peck- 
iness fungus of bald cypress. The progress of decay, in such 
cases, ends with the death of the tree. 

The speed at which a fungus disease spreads from a given 
point of attack is entirely unknown. This speed is very fast 
in the case of saprophytes working in dead sapwood; it is prob- 
ably very slow in the case of parasitic fungi attacking the 
hea.rtwood of grown trees. 



FOREST PROTECTION 115 

The tales of cruisers to the effect that a tract will "be- 
come punky in ten to fifteen years" do not seem to deserve 
any credit. 

An old tree is, ceteris paribus, more readily affected, and 
more apt to be found affected by disease, than a yoimg one. 

C. Beneficial Fungi. 

The symbiosis of certain fungi with certain trees (dis- 
covered by Frank) seems to be beneficial to both; possibly 
essential to both. 

Many of our trees and shrubs are dependent upon cer- 
tain fimgi, at least for such foods as are derived from humus. 
These fungi consist of delicate, cobwebby threads such as 
are seen on mouldy bread. These threads spread through 
the soil and either enter the outer cells of the root or simply 
form a mantle (Mycorrhiza) about the root. The fungi live 
upon decaying animal and plant matter, and transfer a por- 
tion of this food to the root and doubtless secure in return 
certain benefits from the root. This mutual helpful relation- 
ship of two plants is termed commensalism. 

The majority of our heaths, evergreens, poplars, willows, 
beeches and oaks have become dependent upon these fungi 
and do not thrive in soils where the fungi are not found. 

Some herbaceous plants, like the Indian-pipe, have be- 
come entirely dependent upon these fxmgi for food and have, 
as a consequence, lost all their chlorophyll. 

This field of forest ecological study is practically vm- 
touched, though it will form the basis of future silviculture. 
Certain fungi might be used, technologically, for the prepar- 
ation of pure cellulose. 

D. Signs of disease. 

The signs of disease are visible only on a tree, usually, 
when it is too late to save the patient. 
These signs are: — 

A. Hypertrophical swellings, f.i., knots on Spanish oak 

and tumors on yellow pine at Biltmore. 

B. Exudations of rosin in galls or in seams. 

C. Appearance of sporophores, which are rare in some 

species, but are frequently seen on diseased red 
oak, locust, and ash. When decaying holes ap- 
pear on a tree, the forester is apt to find the 
whole tree diseased. Yellow poplar trees are 
sound within one foot, and white oak logs are 
sound within two feet from the actual end of 
a cavity. 



116 FOREST PROTECTION 

The tree weeds, e. g., Halesia (Mohrodendron) , gum and 
calmia, might be exterminated in days to come with the help 
of their fungus enemies. 
E. Synopsis of the orders of damaging fungi. 

I. Order Phycomycetes. Family Peronosporeoe. 

The mycelium is unicellular. The propa- 
gation is effected by niunerous branching hyphae 
forming at their tips little sacs or sporangia in 
clusters or chains (conidia). These are carried 
by wind to other plants where they germinate 
at once, forming a tube that penetrates the leaf. 
If the leaf is wet, the contents of the sporangia 
break up into a number of zoospores which de- 
velop the characteristic hyphse of the fungi. 
Sexual reproduction occurs in most species and 
consists of a gametangia cut off from the ends 
of the hyphse and fertilized by male gametes 
developed on branches (antheridia) of the game- 
tangia bearing hyphse. The resulting thick walled 
gametospore tides the fungus over winter. 

American representatives are not fully known. 
Some bad nursery fungi belong to this family 
(notably Phytophtora omnivora). 
II. Order Ascomycetes. 

1st. Family — Pyrenomycetes. 

Flask-shaped frutifications (peri- 
thecia) are characteristic of this fam- 
ily. Within the perithecia, which are 
open at the top (angiocarpous), occur 
nimierous asci, each containing eight 
spores. Preceeding the formation of 
perithecia, conidiospores are usually 
formed which are especially efficaci- 
ous in disseminating the fungi. Ex- 
amples: Nectria on maple and beech. 

2nd. Family- — Discomycetes. 

Distinguished by open gymnocar- 
pous apothecia (cup-shaped recepta- 
cles, bearing freely exposed asci). 

The Discomycetes are unimportant 
for the American forester, none being 
observed as damaging our trees. Rhy- 
tisma acerinum frequently forms large 
black incrustations of pseudo-paren- 
chyma on the leaves of maple, conidia 
developing in the summer and mature 



FOREST PROTECTION 117 

apothecia in the succeeding spring. 
The most important representative of 
this family in Europe is Peziza. 
III. Order Basidiomycetes. 

Spores carried on basidia of definite shape 
and size, and bearing a fixed number of spores. 

1st. Family — UredinecB. 

All are injurious parasites, the 
myceliimi being in the intercellular 
spaces of the tissues (particularly iu 
the leaves) of higher plants. These 
fimgi change their hostplants, showing 
a double generation, and develop sev- 
eral kinds of asexual spores, according 
to the season and to the host; aecidio- 
spores and pycnoconidia in spring; 
uredospores in summer; teleutospores 
in autumn, which in the following 
spring develop basidiospores. The my- 
celium from the basidiospores enters 
the first host and develops the aeci- 
dium stage (formerly the genus Ae- 
ddnim) with aecidia and pycnidia. The 
next stage on a different host develops 
the uredospores (formerly genus Ure- 
do), and in autiman the thick walled 
teleutospores. 

2nd. Family — Hymenomycetes. 

Basidia imbedded in a common 
hymenimn which clothes, in Agari- 
cacece, a series of radial lamellae on the 
imder side of the pileus, and in Poly- 
poracece and Boletacece, the inner sur- 
face of pores. 

In a few genera no distinctive 
fructifications are formed (Exobasi- 
diurn vacdnii, parasitic and causing 
hypertrophy on Ericaceae). 

Another arrangement of the orders 
and families of fungi might be made 
with reference to pathogeny: 
a. The groups 

Uredinece 1 

Ustilaginece contain parasites only, 

(so-called "Smuts") so that no proof of 

Peronosporece ( parasitism is required. 

Exoascece 
(witch broom) ^ 



118 FOREST PROTECTION 



b. The groups 

Pyrenomycetes 

Discomycetes I contain parasites as 

Hymenomycetes V well as saprophytes so 

Myxomycetes / that proof of parasi- 

And several groupsV tism is required. 

of lower fungi and| 

bacteria. 

This proof is obtained by artificial infection only. 

Infection reveals, — 

(1) parasitic nature of a fungus, 

(2) exact species of fungus, 

(3) relationship of hetercecious Uredinece and 

their host plants (uredinal, telial and 
secidial stages), 

(4) various forms of reproductive organs, 

(5) conditions favorable to attacks. 

The fungi might be further divided into two 
large groups, namely: 

(a) Physiologically obnoxious species (tree killers 

and tree deformers) belonging to the 
orders Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes and 
to the family Uredinece of the order 
Basidiomycetes. 

(b) Technically obnoxious species (wood disin- 

tegrators) belonging notably to the fam- 
ily Hymenomycetes; this group may be 
sub-divided into fimgi living on dead 
trees (Saprophytes) and fungi living on 
live trees (Parasites). 

Group (a) is of greatest importance 
in Germany and France; whilst group 
(b) is of greatest importance in tha 
United States. 

F. According to parts attacked, the forest fungi might be subdivided 
as follows: 

I. Nursery fungi and plantation fvmgi. 
II. Root fimgi in saplings and poles. 

III. Leaf and twig fungi. (Bulletin Bureau of Plant In- 

dustry No. 149, page 18). 

IV. Fungi causing hypertrophical formations (witch 

brooms). 
V. Fungi discoloring lumber or timber. 
VI. Fimgi destroying the cambivun and the sapwood of 
standing trees or poles. 



i 



FOREST PROTECTION 119 

Vn. Fungi destroj-ing the sapwood of dead trees and of logs. 
VIII. Fungi destroj-ing the heartwood in li%-ing trees. 
IX. Fiingi destrojdng timber, ties, poles and posts after 
manufacture and •n-hilst in use. 

G. Fungus species worthy of note which are physiologically obnoxious. 
I. Agaricus meUeiis (honey fimgus) is a champignon 
attacking and killing conifers four to fifteen 
years old. "^Tiite pine suffers ven,- badly. The 
disease spreads underground through the so- 
caUed rhizomorpha (strong threads of mycel- 
ium). The soU at the basis of affected plants 
is charged with exuded rosin. Comp. Biill. Plant 
Industry, Xo. 149, page 23. 
II. Aecidium pint attacks the needles and the yoimg 
bark of pine saplings. The spores enter by a 
woimd and the spread of the mycelium in the 
cambium causes hj-pertrophical formations, es- 
pecially on the main stem. The teleutosporous 
generation has a Senecio species for its host 
{Coleosporium senecionis). 

III. Peridemiium cerebrum (family UredineoB) kills two 

year old lodgepole pines as well as other pines. 
(Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 200). 

IV. Peridermium strobi, known as the blister of the white 

pine, has Pinus cembra for its original host. 
Whilst it does not injure this species serioiisly, 
its attacks are deadly to our white pine during 
its juvenile stage. In old trees well protected 
by hea-vn,- bark, the tops and branches alone are 
affected. The disease is frequent abroad; and 
stringent measures should prevent it from en- 
tering into the Tnited States. The uredal form 
of the fimgus [Crotwrtiurti ribicohi}7}) forms blotches 
on the leaves of the currant (Ribes). Compare 
Quarterly Journal of Forestry-, July, 1909, p. 232. 
V. A Gymnosporangium causes the "Cedar apples" of 
red cedar; see Bull. 21, Div. of Pathology, p. 8. 
For. Bull. 31 (Red Cedar) p. 25. 
VI. Hysterium pinastri causes the shedding disease dreaded 
in nurseries. Pine seedlings up to foiu* years 
old drop the needles of a sudden in spring. White 
pine is little affected; strong seedlings are im- 
mune. The disease spreads through old needles 
on which the fungus lives saprophj-tically. Not 
observed in America so far. 



120 FOREST PROTECTION 

VII. Diaporthe parasitica (discovered by Dr. Murrill) is 
the worst treekUling disease yet described in 
the United States. It tends to exterminate the 
chestnut trees from New York to Virginia, and 
is spreading southward. Entering the cambial 
layers of the tree and notably those of its branches 
without the requirement of preceding wounds, 
the mycelium actually "girdles" the living trees 
(W. A. Murrill, in Jour. N. Y. Bot. Garden 7: 
143-153; Bull. No. 149, Bureau of Plant Indus- 
try, p. 22). 

VIII. Hypoderma sirobicola is the "needle blight" of the 
wliite pine and appears to be a dangerous para- 
site on Pinus Strobus. Compare Tubeuf's "Dis- 
eases of Plants," english edition by W. G. Smith, 
p. 233. Tubeuf claims that the disease may 
devastate whole tracts of forests. A disease of 
the white pine similar to that described by Tubeiif 
has been reported from Massachusetts (various 
articles in Woodland and Roadside), from Wes- 
tern North Carolina and from eastern Tennessee, 
and is being studied by the pathological divis- 
ions of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Compare 
Circular No. 35, Bureau of Plant Industry. 

IX. " Damping-off " is a disease of seedlings soon after 
germination dreaded by all nurserymen, and 
decimating many natural regenerations (birch!). 
The fungi causing the disease are imdescribed. 
H. Fungus species worthy of note which are technically obnoxious. 
The genus Polyporus (including Trametes, Fomes, Boletus, 
Polysiictus, and Dcedalea) is responsible for the decomposi- 
tion of heartwood in living trees frequently brovight about 
by the help of an enzym. 

Overaged timber is almost invariably attacked by Poly- 
porus. The sporophores may appear in branch holes or scars, 
and are, although the disease might be common, rare in many 
species. 

Most noteworthy are the following Polypori: — 

I. Polyporus annosus (or Trametes radiciperda) , a root 
fungus of conifers, attacks pole woods. Sporo- 
phores under ground in roots. Wood turns brown 
to begin with and is finally hollowed out. (Agric. 
Year Book 1900, p. 207). 
II. Trametes pini causes the heartwood rot (known as 
"red heart") of pine; the punkiness and per- 
haps the ring cracks of fir, long leaf, short leaf, 



FOREST PROTECTION 121 

and sugar pines; the speckled rot or red heart 
of Douglas fir; the cork of western hemlock. 
It is found only in trees over forty years old, 
usually more in the top of the tree, — but in 
Pinus monticola close to the gound. The wood 
never rots out entirely and the absence of cavi- 
ties is characteristic of this fmigus. It enters 
through branch stubs containing heartwood. 
Reference Bull. For. 33, p. 15; F. & I. 1902, 
p. 62; Agric. Year Book 1900, plate XXII. and 
XXIV. and page 206. 

III. Polyporus juniperinus creates long holes coated white 

in the heartwood of red cedar. (For. Bull. 31, 
p. 25; Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 208; Bull. 21 
of Div. of Vegetable Pathology). 

IV. Polyporus carneus causes the red rot of red cedar 

and of arbor vitse. The wood splits into small 
cubes, charcoal like. (Bull. 21 of Div. of Vege- 
table Physiology and Pathology; For. Bull. 21, 
p. 26). 
V. Polyporus versicolor causes the soft rot of live catalpa, 
Polyporus catalpce the brown rot of the species; 
Bull. Bureau Plant Industry, No. 149, page 47 
and pp. 53 to 56; Bull. 37 of Bureau of Forestrj', 
pp. 51-58; also in oak and hemlock and beech 
(For. Bull. 51, p. 31) as a saprophyte on ties. 
VI. Polyporus rimosus causes the yellow rot of black 
locust, in its heartwood. Holes made by locust 
borers {Cyllene rohinice) serve as entrances. 
(Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207); Contr. Shaw 
School of Botany, No. 17; Bureau Plant Indus- 
try Bull. No. 149, p. 45. 
VII. Polyporus schweinitzii causes the "butt rot," "groxmd 
rot" or "root rot" of all conifers, notably of 
Douglas fir and hemlock. Fungus enters at the 
base of the tree through insect mines. Trees 
die in patches; sporophores are short-lived. 
(Bull. For. 33, p. 15; F. & I. 1902, p. 61; Agric. 
Year Book 1900, p.p 203 and 206, and plate 
XXIV). 
VIII. Polyporus fraxinophilus occurs in white ash having 
over seven inches d.b.h. The hyphae seem to 
enter by the water niches left by broken branches. 
Wood becomes straw colored. Very frequent. 
Reference Bull. 32 and Bull. 149, page 46, of 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 



122 



FOREST PROTECTION 



IX. Polyporus nigricans attacks beech, birch and poplar 
in the New England States causing standing 
timber to rot. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207; 
Bulletin Bureau Plant Industry No. 149, p. 42). 
X. Polyporus sulfureus causes the brown rot of many- 
conifers, also of oak, walnut and cherry. (Bull. 
Bureau Plant Industry No. 149, page 37; Agric. 
Year Book 1900, p. 207). 

XI. Polyporus igniarius occurs everywhere on beech and 
oak. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207; Bulletin 
Bureau Plant Industry, No. 149, pp. 25 to 37). 
XII. Polyporus libocedris causes the peckiness of bald 
cypress and the pin rot of incense cedar. The 
pecks consist of disconnected holes (or pockets) 
about 4" long ending abruptly and partially 
filled with brown powder. Foxmd in trees over 
100 years old. Reference: Contr. Shaw School 
of Botany, No. 14. 

XIII. Polyporus pinicola. Western conifers, four years after 

death, are found entirely destroyed by Poly- 
porus pinicola. Reference: F. & I., 1902, p. 60; 
Agric. Year Book 1900, pp. 202 and 209 and 
plate XXV. 

XIV. Polyporus obtusus is a common cause of the sap rot 

in dead oak trees (Bull. Bureau of Plant In- 
dustry, p. 41). 
XV. Polyporus fulvus causes the so-called "red heart" 
of the birch (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, 
p. 47). 
XVI. Polyporus squamosus causes "white rot" in various 
hardwood trees, e. g. maple, oak, beech, birch 
and ash. (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 48). 

XVII. Polyporus pergamenus causes the "sap rot" of trees 

and logs — often after fires — in many hardwoods 
(notably oak); its work is particularly quick, and 
so is the rapidity of its fruiting (Bull. Bureau of 
Plant Industry, No. 149, p. 56). 

XVIII. Polyporus betulinus and fomentarius may parasiti- 

cally weaken living birches and beeches (Mayr), 
or may be satisfied to cause the decomposition 
of weakened and of dead wood (Von Schrenk), 
(Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, No. 149, p. 49). 
XIX. Polyporus applanatus is reported as the killer (?) of 
cottonwoods (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, 
No. 149, p. 58). 



FOREST PROTECTION 123 

XX. Polyporus ponder osus n. sp., described in detail by 
H. von Schrenk in Bull. 36 of Bureau of Plant 
Industry, p. 37 f.f.g., causes the red rot of Pinus 
ponderosa killed by insect pests at the lapse of 
two years. The fimgus is a saprophyte closely 
resembling Polyporus pinicola. 
Aside of the Polypori, the following technically obnoxious fungi 
deserve attention. 

I. Lenzites sepiaria is a saprophyt preying on hemlock, 
long leaf and short leaf pine — notably on rail- 
road ties. (Reference For. Bull. 51). 
II. Schizophyllum commune attacks railroad ties of short 
leaf pine, hemlock, etc. saprophytically. (Ref, 
For. Bull. 51). 

III. Unnamed fungus, the sporophores of which are un- 

known, attacks Sequoia sempervirens and causes 
"brown rot" (or "butt rof or "pin rot"), the 
decay beginning in the inner rings of heartwood 
near the ground. The fibre is converted into 
pockets, usually twice as broad as long, filled 
with dark brown matter. (Reference: For. Bull. 
38, pp. 29-31, and plates X. and XI). 

IV. Ceratostomella (Sphceria) pilifera, a saprophyt of the 

family Discomycetes, causes the bluing of sap- 
wood in the Itmiber and in the dead boles (killed 
by Dendroctonus) of Pinus ponderosa. This fungus 
does not interfere with the strength of the tim- 
ber; it decreases its fissibiiity- — a disadvantage 
in cutting of railroad ties. The spores seem to 
enter through the ladder mines made by the 
Ambrosia beetles — but do not seem to develop 
into Ambrosia. Reference: Bull. 36, Bureau of 
Plant Industry entire. 

"The bluing" of the sap wood in logs and 
limaber is disastrous notably to the value of 
poplar logs driven or rafted to destination dur- 
ing spring and summer, of poplar sap lumber, 
pine saps, sap gum and the like, sawed and slowly 
air dried during spring and smnmer. These in- 
juries are due to undescribed fungi. 
V. Echinodontium tinctorium attacks western hemlock 
causing "cork," — like Trametes pint; also in 
spruce and red fir. (Reference: For. Biill. 33, 
p. 15). 



124 FOREST PROTECTION 

J. General remedies against fungi on live trees. 

I. Extermination or removal of the fimgus itseK; 

(1) in case of seeds, by sterilization with hot 

water, or copper "steep-mixtures." 

(2) in case of leaf-fungi, by dusting or spray- 

ing with mixtures containing copper or 
sulphur. 

(3) in case of Agaricacece and Polyporacece, by 

removal of sporophores, by excision; 

(4) in case of dead parts of plants carrying 

sporocarps, or other reproductive stages 
of fungi, by dead-priming, or removal 
of dead litter on ground. 
II. Extermination of living host or of affected parts of 
same. 

(1) Removal of living host. 

(2) Removal of complimentary (hetercecious) 

host. 
III. Avoidance of conditions favoring infection. 

(1) no woimds, or antiseptic treatment of same; 

(2) avoidance of localities favorable to disease; 

(3) no large, even aged, pure forests; 

(4) no selection systems, no summer cutting; 

(5) rotation of crops; 

(6) no planting of hetercecioios hosts together; 

(7) mixed forests; short rotation; suppression of 

boring insects; no artificial priming of 
living branches; 

(8) raising strong trees of individual power of 

resistence and independent for help from 
neighbors; 

(9) improvement cuttings and thinnings. 

K. General remedies against fungi in nurseries. 

(1) Change of species, notably in nursery beds. 

(2) Sterilized soil in nursery beds. 

(3) Deep trenches between nursery beds. 

(4) Drenching the beds with a weak solution of sulphuric 

acid (one ounce of acid to one gallon of water) 
prior to seed planting and after the sprouting 
of the seedlings. Compare Circular No. 4, Bu- 
reau of Plant Industry. 

(5) Production of fungus proof varieties. 

(6) Spraying of affected leaves or shoots, or beds with 

Bordeaux mixture, consisting of a 3% solution 
of copper sulphate and lime (Recipe, Tubeuf 
& Smith, page 69). 



FOREST PROTECTION 126 

L. General remedies against fungi in young regenerations. 

(1) Use very strong plants. 

(2) Do not buy plants from nurseries known to be infested. 

(3) Toungya.. 

(4) Avoid foreigners. 

(5) Plant only kinds known to suit the locality. 

(6) No regeneration from mother trees in pine {Hyster- 

iumf) in beech {Phytophtora\) etc. 

(7) No seedlings of conifers near stumps of hardwoods. 
M. General remedies against fungi in lumber, ties and poles. 

(1) Wet storage; preservation in ponds (mUl), saltwater 

(tamarack), running water (Caesar's Rhine bridge), 
swamps (Ky. walnut). 

(2) Dry storage (like furniture) xmder shelter; dry kiln!! 

(3) "Antistain," or "painting," or exposure to sim and 

wind; or else interruption of logging and mill- 
ing from April to September. 

(4) Impregnation either of the wood, or of the medium 

in which the wood is kept. (Compare H. von 
Schrenk, in Bull. 14, Bureau of Plant Industry; 
further Lectures on "Utilization" by C. A. 
Schenck, paragraph XLIV). 



126 FOREST PROTECTION 



Par. 8. Protection Against Parasites Other Than Fungi. 

A. A number of phanerogams live parasitically upon various trees, 

notably in the tropics. 

In the United States, the common mistletoe (Phoraden- 
dron flavescens) and the dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium cryp- 
topoda and pusillum) are worthy of note. (Bull. Bureau of 
Plant Industry No. 149, pp. 14 to 17). Arceuthobium occi- 
dentale deforms the bole and the branches of western hem- 
lock, causing cancerous tumors (Plate VI, Forestry Biilletin 
No. 33, p. 16). 

The damage done by these parasites is so insignificant 
that remedies are nowhere indicated. 

B. Tree mosses, tree algse and tree lichens are variously reported as 

malefactors when occurring in such quantities that young 
leaves and fresh shoots are smothered by them. It is possible 
also that they interfere with the function of the "lenticels." 
Tillandsia usneoides and Usnea barbata may be mentioned 
as representatives of this group. The former called "Spanish 
moss" is a flowering plant, common on trees in the Southern 
States; the latter, a lichen, is abundant in northern swamps 
and woods. Compare Bulletin No. 149, Bureau of Plant In- 
dustry, page 17. 



Part B : Protection Against Inorganic Nature. 



CHAPTER I: PROTECTION AGAINST ADVERSE 
CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 

Par. 9. Protection Against Frost. 

Fkost May be Beneficial 

By checking insect plagues (late frost), also mice and other rodents, 
decimating them in cold and protracted winters; 

By clipping back inferior species competing with aristocrats (beech 
vs. oak at Viernheim); imdesirable coppice sprouts, cut in Aug- 
ust, are apt to die; 

By furnishing ice on lakes and on iced roads, creating conditions favor- 
able to transportation by sleds, and steady weather for logging, 
skidding, etc.; 

By increasing the value of firewood, and oftentimes by forcing men 
to take employment in the woods when other occupations are barred 
by frost. 

A. Frost is Injurious to Utilization 

By Interfering 

1. in the south with the logging operations, — owing to the 

unreliability of the occurrence of frost; the necessity 
of shoeing cattle; the formation of jams in flumes; 
the interference by late frost with tan bark peeling, 
etc.; also by bursting trees, when felled in frozen con- 
dition; by toughness of fibre so as to retard the feed 
of the saw-carriage; by danger to water pipes, con- 
nected with engines, boilers, locomotives, donkey 
engines, etc.; by necessity of changing the setting of 
the teeth, and the temper and the speed of the saw. 

2. in the north with water transportation on the lakes (no- 

tably Great Lakes) and rivers (notably St. Lawrence). 

B. Frost is Injurious Physiologically (Sylviculturally) 

By killing leaves, buds, shoots, branches (notably sappy 
shoots), flowers and fruits, seedlings and (rarely) saplings. 

There is no proof at hand of poles or trees of native species being 
killed by frost. 

Foreigners (e. g., palms, eucalypts and many species tried in nor- 
thern prairies) are subject to frost. 

127 



128 FOREST PROTECTION 

Absolute cold is not injurious, eo ipso, to native species, which 
know how to protect themselves 

by leaves dropped 

by non-freezing cell contents 

by lignification 

by cork layers, bud scales, hairs 

by color 

by position (rolled up rhododendron leaves) 

by beginning growth late and by finishing it early. 
The death of a specimen, or of parts of it, is brought about, in all 
probability, by a rapid transition from cold to warm (cite 
various theories, and experiments made to support them). 
Hence it is that the severe frost of winter, or frost occurring 
at a time at which plants are protected, is less injurious than 
a light early frost in fall or a light late frost in spring. 
Frost occurring unexpectedly is most injurious, — and particularly 
so to the young parts of an old plant or to a plant, all parts 
of which are young and tender (e. g., germinating seedlings). 

(a) Influencing factors are: 

Locality (frost holes), latitude, altitude, exposures 
(eastern); 

Atmospheric conditions preceding and following 
a cold spell; 

Snow cover; 

Condition of plant (germs sprouting; buds open- 
ing; shoots lengthening; lignification unfin- 
ished) ; 

Size (age) of plants; 

Presence or absence of wind. 

(b) Consequences of frost are: 

Failures of nursery beds; 

Failure of natural seed regenerations; 

Failure of seed years; 

Failure of seedlings to compete with weeds (e. g., 
sedgegrass and walnut at Biltmore), and with 
rabbits (e. g., maple and chestnutoak at 
Biltmore) ; 

Saplings and seedlings growing . bushy or forking 
(cherry, loosing tips of shoots incessantly; 
larch, at Biltmore, on Bradley Plantation, 
due to September frost, 1906; echinata at 
Biltmore, everywhere, due to September frost, 
1906); 

Aristocrats smothered by mob (walnut at Bilt- 
more overtopped by hard maple, owing to 
frost); 



FOREST PROTECTION 129 

Shortened growing season; 

Restricted number of species locally producible; 

Double rings of wood, and possibly windshakes 
in wood; 

Weakened condition of a tree, subjecting it to 
insects and fungi, and also to breakage by 
storm, snow and sleet, owing to the reduced 
elasticity of the fibre. 
(c) Species afflicted: 

The species known to suffer, in one way or an- 
other, from frost are called "sensitive;" the 
others are known as "hardy" species. 



SENSITIVE 
AT BiLTMORE 



Chestnut Beech 

Maples Oaks 

Black Gum Catalpa 

Scotch Pine Oregon Ash 

White Pine Oregon Maple 

Rigid Pine Box Elder 

Halesia Pinus ponderosa 

Cottonwood Pinus lambertiana 

Hickories Pinus echinata 

Spruces Edgeworthia 

Douglasia Walnut 

Yellow Poplar Buckeye 



(d) The remedies against frost are almost entirely 

PREVENTIVE: 

(Restrictive measures are possible only in nur- 
series, and consist in watering the beds after 
very cold nights). 

1. In nurseries: 

Late planting of seeds in spring, where late frost 
is dreaded; or else early planting where early 
frost is feared in fall; 

Lath screens, or nursery under cover (unless 
lignification is handicapped); 

Clouds of smoke on frosty mornings; 

Avoidance of east aspects; 

Heeling-out transplants, so as to retard sprout- 
ing in spring; 

H 



130 FOREST PROTECTION 

Avoidance of dense stands in seed beds (ash seed- 
lings at Biltmore failed to lignify in 1905, 
excepting those at outer edge). 

2. In plantations: 

Remark: A seedling once crippled by frost is 
apt to be crippled again, and again, and 
again, owing to the fact, that the replace- 
ment of organs once lost takes time; so that 
the growing season is shortened. The wal- 
nuts and buckeyes at Biltmore, once clipped 
back by frost have been clipped back an- 
nually. 

Early planting in spring to avoid early frost; 

Late planting in spring to avoid late frost; 

No experimenting with the introduction of new 
species; 

Natural regeneration of Pinus echinata (also 
White Pine in Adirondacks) to avoid for- 
mation of double whirls; 

Planting sensitive species beneath a light cover 
overhead, so as to prevent excessive height 
growth, or premature formation of spring 
shoots. 

Use of strong stocky seedlings, since minute 
plants are prevented from lignification by 
shading weeds. 

Selecting species suiting the soil (walnut on best 
soil, where it will lignify; echinata on poor 
soil, where it will form one shoot only), 
the exposure, and the climate (prairie plant- 
ing); 

Cultivation, so as to stimulate insolation and 
lignification; possibly pruning to same end; 
or else to give the lead to one side shoot 
amongst several when the leader is frost- 
kUled. 

3. In natural seed regeneration: 

Progress of the axe in shelterwood-types accord- 
ing to the requirements of the seedlings, 
viz., slow, where late frost is feared, so as 
to retard the act of sprouting in spring; 
or else rapid, where early frost is feared, 
so as to allow of lignification; 

Untimely and sudden removal of mother trees 
may shock tender plants (even spruce 5' 
high), on the other hand. 



FOREST PROTECTION 131 

Frost may be invited on purpose to check a less 
desirable species in mixture with a hardier 
and more desirable species. 
C. Frost is Injurious 

BY LIFTING (UPROOTINg) SEEDLINGS IN NURSERIES AND PLANTATIONS. 

Subject to damage are: 

Flat rooted species growing slowly in early youth, notably 

conifers (yellow pine yearlings, white pine yearlings, 

spruce, hemlock); 
Moist localities and loose soil; 
East exposures, and notably steep east aspects. 

(a) Remedial m^easures are: 

Pressing seedlings back, soon after accident. 

(b) Restrictive measures are: 

1. In nurseries: 

Drainage by deep paths (middlings) between the 

beds; 
Proper aeration of soil; 
Seedbeds planted broadcast; 
Strong seedlings, and long roots; 
Shading beds, and covering space between the 

• rows of plants; 
No weeding in early fall. 

2. In plantations: 

Planting on reversed sods; 
Mound planting; 

Planting three year-olds (two year old trans- 
plants in case of yellow pine); 
Planting ball plants; 
Planting under shelter overhead. 
D. Frost is Injurious 

By CAUSING frost cracks 

in hardwoods only, notably in case of injured trees and of 

species having strong medullary rays. 
Insect disease and fungus disease follow in the cracks. 
Remedy: Timely thinning or improvement cutting. 
Cracks occur, notably, 

along lower part of bole; 

on standards over coppice; 

on south side of trees; 

on medium sized trees (13^'-3'). 

in moist localities. 



132 FOREST PROTECTION 



Par. 10. Protection Against Heat. 

A. Heat Causes Harm Only: 

When it invites forest fires; 

When it fails to be balanced by the moisture in the air or soil (wood 
lots in the prairies; old park trees); 

When it occurs suddenly, striking the trees in a state of non-pro- 
tection (e. g., new plantations and trees isolated of a sudden). 

B. The Plants Protect Themselves Ordinarily Against Heat: 

By dropping leaves; 

By resinous cell contents; 

By closed stomata; 

By color and position of leaves; 

By coverings of cork, hair and that like. 

C. Remedies: 

1. In infant forests: 

(a) in nurseries: 

Secure irrigation; 

Provide lath screens or cloth screens; 
Maintain a cover of mould on the soil; 
Cultivate so as to increase the porosity of soil; 
Plant the seeds early in spring before the winter 

moisture has vanished; 
Transplant early and transplant deeply. 

(b) in plantations: 

Use strong transplants; 

Adopt mound planting; 

Plant under cover; 

Adopt ball planting; 

Avoid loss of root fibres during act of out-planting; 

Cultivate. 

(c) in natural seed regenerations: 

Remove mother trees slowly; 

Remove trees reflecting heat unto young growth. 

(d) Generally: 

Maintain a dense cover overhead, and a good 
layer of humus underneath. 

2. In pole forests and tree forests: 

Characteristic for damage (so-called sunscald) is: 

Bark scaling off; 

Sap wood turning brown; 

Discoloration and decay within a distinct sector of bole, 
(a) Prevent simscald by avoiding sudden changes of the 

influx of light; 



FOREST PROTECTION 133 

Notably so in the case of dense stands of beech, 
spruce, white pine, ash; 

Notably on the West-South- West edge of a wood 
lot. 

At Biltmore, Oak saplings along the macada- 
mized roads; chestnuts on the arboretiun 
road; and hickories of small diameter have 
been visited by the disease. 

(b) Do not remove the trees affected by sunscald; their 

removal will merely expose the trees in the rear, 
and the damage will continue. 

(c) Do not remove, from endangered trees, by priming, 

any living branches. 

(d) Time the progress of the axe properly in thinnings, 

preparatory cuttings, seed cuttings and removal 
cuttings. 



134 FOREST PROTECTION 



Par. 11. Protection Against Snow and Sleet. 

Snow is Beneficial: 

By preventing fires; 

By storing water and by preserving soil moisture; 

By facilitating the logging operations; 

By covering sensitive plants; 

By removing dead side branches; 

By preventing frost from entering deeply into soil; 

By reducing the felling damages. 

A. Snow is Technically Obnoxious: 

By preventing the use of wagons or railroads; 
By endangering skidding on steep slopes; 
By increasing sledding expenses (when snow is too deep); 
By causing extra outlay in cutting stumps low to the ground; 
By reducing the accessibility of the woods. 

Remark: Winters of excessive snow are known as winters of re- 
stricted output of lumber. 

B. Snow is Physiologically Obnoxious: 

By bending down saplings and poles with or without their roots; 
By breaking off branches and crowns or by breaking down poles 

and trees with the roots; 
By causing rodents and game to attack trees and saplings for food; 
By exposing trees after breakage to the attacks of insects and fungi; 
By increasing storm damage at a time when the trees are loaded 

with snow or sleet. 

C. Factors of Damage. 

Species and mixture of species; 

Age and size of trees; _ 

Method of regeneration and notably the density thereof; 

Climatic constellations (e. g., coincidence of storm; succession of 

thaws and snows; occurrences of snow in Octover, before the 

fall of the leaves); 
Preceding treatment by thinning; by removal cuttings; by leavin] 

standards after coppiceing; by road making. 
Locality, elevation and aspect: 
Steepness of slope; 
Depth of soil (Coxehill); 
Rate of growth (fast grown yellow pine and top whirls of fast grownj 

white pine at Biltmore;) 
Prior injuries by fire, by boxing, by insects and fungi (black locusts). 
Remark: Remember the following illustrations: 
White cedar in swamps of South Carolina; 
Cuban pine in Alabama; 



FOREST PROTECTION I35 

Poplar tops in Pisgah Forest; 

Topped white pines in the Pink Beds; 

Black locusts and hickory on mountain tops; 
- Plantations of rigid pine in Black Forest; 

Spruce saplings in the Balsams, in the early spring of 1908, 
D. Remedies: 

Selecting the proper species for planting or for natural seed re- 
generations, in keeping with the requirements of the locality 
and of the climate; 

Group system of natural seed regeneration; 

Planting in rows instead of planting in triangles (Hess); 

Thinnings properly made beginning early in very dense regenerations; 

Pollarding; 

Readiness of permanent means of transportation so as to make 
possible the salvage of broken timber. 



CHAPTER II: PROTECTION AGAINST STORM, EROSION, 
SANDDRIFTS, NOXIOUS GASES. 

Part 12. Protection Against Wind Storms. 

Wind is Beneficial: 

By restoring the chemical balance of the atmosphere; 
By distributing pollen and seeds; 
By preventing excessive formation of side branches; 
By bringing rain. 

A. Damage is Caused by Wind Storm (aside of forest fires spread or fanned) : 

(a) in plantations: 

By loosening the anchorage of tall seedlings and 
saplings; (notably, after planting in furrows, 
in the prairies, on sand dimes); 

By drying out roots and shoots and leaves and 
soil (notably in the early spring); 

By removing the protecting cover of snow; 

By allowing the "mob" to whip the top shoots 
of "aristocrats." 

(b) IN EXPOSED localities: 

By one-sided (seashore or Pisgah ridge) or stimted 
growth. 

(c) IN TREE forests AND IN LAEGE POLE WOODS: 

By breakage of crowns or branches, thus allow- 
ing access to fvmgi and to insects; 

By breakage of stems at their point of least re- 
sistence; 

By uprooting trees singly, in avenues, or in large 
blocks; 

By endangering the logging operations. 

B. Factors of Damage ake: 

(a) Species: 

Flat-rooted conifers are most endangered; a mix- 
ture of species in advisable. 

(b) Size class: 

Poles and trees over 8" in diameter are most 
subject to damage. 

(c) Locality: 

Leeward sides of lakes; 

Mountain slopes and mountain tops on leeward 

side; 
Moist spots; 
Shallow soil. 

136 



FOREST PROTECTION 137 

(d) Prior Treatment: 

Partial logging, leaving a freshly bared front 
exposed to the prevailing storm; 

Standards over coppice; 

Single seedtrees over regeneration; 

Borggreve thinnings; 

Turpentining by the box system; 

Interference with anchorage of roots by making 
ditches or roads. 

(e) Shape of trees: 

Cylindrical trees are more top heavy than coni- 
cal trees. 

(f) Accompanying circumstances: 

Heavy rains soaking the soil; 

Heavy seed years when the tops of the trees are 

loaded with cones; 
Sleet; 
Snow. 

C. Preventive measures: 

(a) Sylviculturally: 

Ball planting, deep planting, sod covering on 

shifting sand. 
Fostering hardwoods or mixture therewith; 
Early and moderate and regular thinnings; 
Pruning or lopping to reduce top-heaviness; 
No standards; 

No single tree method of natural seed regeneration; 
Proper preparation in due time of trees intended 

for an isolated position; 
Short rotations. 

(b) Technicai^ly: 

Avoidance of logging methods leaving points 
favorable to the attack of storms; 

Progress of the axe against the direction of the 
barometric minima; 

Herty method of terpentining; 

Proper "cutting series;" 

Timely "severance cuttings." 

D. Restrictive Measures: 

Readiness of means of transportation (railroads and roads) after 

wind falls; 
Removing the bark from wind falls; 
Throwing wind falls in water. 



138 FOREST PROTECTION 



Par. 13. Protection Against Erosion. 

The adult forest does not require any protection from erosion — usu- 
ally so. 

It must be remembered, on the other hand, that "civilization" (by 
ditching the slopes on the hills; by cutting roads and railroads into the soil; 
by draining the bottom-lands for farming purposes) increases the rapidity 
of the subterranean and of the superficial drainage; that it results in a par- 
tial destruction of the soil on the hill sides. 

Erosion, in the present geological acra, is not so active, nevertheless, 
as it was in prior periods. 

A forest plantation on the hill side suffers during its early stages from 
erosion where the soil consists of clay, and where the plough has preceded 
the establishment of the embryo-forest. 

Some seedlings are washed out of the soil whilst others are covered 
by detritus. 

At Biltmore, erosion has harmed particularly the so-called "old school 
house" plantation, in its earliest stage of development. 

As soon as the forest covers the ground fully, viz.: when the branches 
of neighboring specimens interlace, all erosion is usually stopped and stopped 
for good. 

Oftentimes deep gullies are cut into the side slopes during and after 
agricultural occupancy of the soil; in such cases, the stopping of the gullies 
by wicker works or hurdles can be recommended. 

These wicker works should not protrude more than one-half foot above 
the surface of the soil. 

They should be made, particularly, at the upper end of the gully. It 
is useless to make them at the lower end alone. 

These wicker works will hinder erosion to a certain extent; wUl quiet 
the soil within the gully; and will allow the grasses and the weeds to occupy 
the sides of the gully. 

The most interesting case of erosion met in Eastern America is, pos- 
sibly, the erosion exhibited in the immediate proximity of the smelter works 
at Ducktown, Tenn. 

Here, the hillsides were laid bare entirely at a time at which the smelters 
used the timber for charcoal. 

Following this deforestation, the bared areas were used for roasting 
(by the open heap method) of the copper-bearing ores. As a consequence, 
every vestige of vegetation has been annihilated on the hillsides and eros- 
ion has had a chance to work in an amazing degree of intensity. 

Erosion may be checked by horizontal ditches — or ditches running 
at a very light grade; by the planting of grasses or weeds between horizon- 
tal ditches; and finally, by afforestation. 

There is no means better than successful afforestation by which the 
soil can be fastened or anchored to the underlying rock. 

Afforestation as a topic of lectures belongs into "Sylviculture" and 
into "Forest Policy." 



FOREST PROTECTION 139 



Par. 14. Protection Against Shifting Sands. 

Instances are rare in which the forest requires any protection against 
shifting sands. 

On the other hand, the forest frequently tends to protect from damage 
the farms, the raihoads and other human interests. 

In other words: The forest requires, rarely, protection against shift- 
ing sands; and it acts freque-ntly as a protector against shifting sands. 

Famous instances of the role which the forest plays in this connection 
are those of Cape Cod, Mass.; of Hatteras Island, N. C. (Compare Collier 
Cobb's article in the National Geographic Magazine entitled "Where the 
wind does the work"); in Central Hungary; in the Landes of Gascogny, 
France; in the Rhine Valley near Darmstadt, Germany; along the Colum- 
bia River in Oregon and Washington; and so on). 

A. Shifting sand along the seashore is found notably in the form of sand 

dunes moving landward, fed and driven by ocean winds. 
It would be unwise to attempt any afforestation of the dunes nearest 

the ocean. Afforestation may set in at some distance from the 

ocean in protected depressions foimd between parallel dimes. 
The dunes are fixed, to begin with, by rough palings forming the heart 

of the dunes and causing a constant growth of the height of the 

dunes. The sides of the dunes are fortified by sandgrasses and 

sandweeds. 
The species used for afforestation belong to particularly modest genera: 

Cottonwoods, willows and pines are recommended. 
Obviously, the forester restocking shifting sands is interested in the 
i fixation of the sands more than in a direct revenue derivable from 

plantations made at a very high expense on very sterile soil. 

B. The case lies somewhat different on sand areas foimd inland. Here, 

afforestation is frequently indicated as a means toward a revenue 
obtainable from soil lying otherwise unproductive and threaten- 
ing, at the margins of the sand fields, destruction to adjoining farm- 
land. 

The usual method of proceeding is the following: 

Sods of grasses or else sods of heather are laid on the soil, checker-board 
fashion. Within the sods are planted longrooted yellow pines, 
preference being given to transplants two years old or else to ball 
plants one year old. There is no harm in "deep planting." 

Afforestation should begin on the windward side of the sand area, in 
protected spots. 

The most famous attempt made in America toward the afforestation 
of inland sands is that of the Forest Service trying to establish, 
on the "Bad Lands" of Nebraska, a. planted forest on a large scale. 



140 FOREST PROTECTION 

It is obvious that small plants are pulled out of a loose soil readily by 
the wind — notably so in the case of evergreens; and that large 
transplants suffer badly from the shock of outplanting and from 
the inadequacy of the water supply available on sterile sand. 

Wheresoever the soil is apt to become shifting, the law should prohibit 
the removal of the trees by their owners. 

The influence in that direction exercised by a commonwealth is dealt 
with in the lectures on "Forest Policy." 



FOREST PROTECTION 141 



Par. 15. Protection Against Noxious Gases (Sulphurfumes) . 

By the term "sulphurfumes" are understood certain gases formed by 
the oxidation of sulphiu-. Huge amounts of these gases are produced wher- 
ever sulphur-bearing minerals are treated in the presence of atmospheric air. 

Contamination of the atmosphere is one of the evils adherent to civili- 
zation, or, which is the same, adherent to an increase of population at cer- 
tain centers. The breath of any man or any animal and, more than that, 
the srnoke rising from any building (dwellings as well as factories) contami- 
nate the air. 

After Angus Smith, the atmosphere at Manchester, England, contains 
a little less than the one-millionth part of SO 2 on the average of the year. 

The rain water investigations made by the same English author show 
the rapid increase of sulphuric acid in rain water near industrial centers. 

The sulphur contained in common coal averages 1.7%, of which 1.2% 
develop into noxious sulphurfumes. In other words, 85 tons of coal will 
develop on the average 2 tons of noxious SO 2. 

Since the consumption of bitimainous coal in the United States is in 
excess of 200,000,000 tons per annum, it appears that we send into the at- 
mosphere (pre-eminently in the northeast) annually about 4,700,000 tons 
of sulphurous acid. 

A. Natuhe of Damage to Leaves. 

There is not at hand, at the present time, any scientific explana- 
tion of the strange physiological effect which sulphur fumes 
exercise upon vegetation. 

After Prof. Naegeli, SO 2 checks the normal movement of the live 
plasma in the leaves. 

Von Schroeder finds that the transpiration from the leaves is that 
function which is most vitally reduced by inhalation of SO,. 

During night, transpiration from the leaves is naturally reduced 
to a minimum, and it is interesting to note that there is little 
difference in the evaporative function of leaves during night, 
whether they be exposed to SO 2 or whether they be left in 
an atmosphere free from SO 2. 

When the sun shines, the difference between the evaporation in 
leaves exposed to SO 2 and in leaves exposed to a pure atmos- 
phere is very striking. 

Reduced transpiration appears to be noticeable before discolora- 
tion of leaves occurs in a sulphurous atmosphere. 

After von Schroeder, very small quantities of SO 2 continuously 
acting produce the same final result (always in the glass case) 
which large quantities will produce acting for short periods 
only. This observation does not tally with the results of 
Freytag's experiments made in the open air. 



142 FOREST PROTECTION 

Darkness reduces the damage by SO 2 more than dryness. In the 
presence of light, heat and humidity, the discoloring and dead- 
ening action of SO 2 is most intense; which is to say: It is 
strongest when the vital functions of the leaves are most active. 

Parallel experiments show no discoloration as a consequence of the 
absorption of SO 2 in the dark room (at night), although such 
absorption takes place actually. 

Wet leaves show much more discoloration than dry leaves in the 
same sulphurous atmosphere. 

The main difficulty met in ascertaining the dilution at which SO 2 
becomes innocuous lies in the disturbing influence of light 
and moisture. 

After Freytag (experiments in the open air) damage is possible 
only in humid air, or when the leaves are slightly wet from 
drizzling rain and from dew. 

Again, after Freytag, air containing less than 0.003% (of weight) 
of SO 2 is innocuous, even under adverse hydrographic con- 
ditions and in spite of continuous fimiigation, applied during 
a number of weeks. 

Freytag's experiments are the only open-air experiments which 
have been conducted with scientific correctness. 

SO 2 and SO 3 are absorbed in the same absolute quantities by the 
leaves when present in the air in equal proportions. Discol- 
oration of leaves, however, and decrease in transpiration from 
leaves are, simultaneously, much smaller in an atmosphere 
of SO 3 than in an atmosphere of SO 2. Consequently, all 
conditions which favor the formation of. SO 3 in the air before 
the air touches the leaves must decrease the damage — espec- 
ially so in the case of chronic affections. 

The assumption that clouds of smoke interfere with the admis- 
sion of light and hence with the assimilation of the leaves is 
erroneous. 

There is no such thing as the "stuflSng up" of the so-called stomata 
found on the leaves (through which inhalation and transpira- 
tion takes place) caused by soot or solid particles contained 
in the fumes. 

Experiments made by Stoeckhardt prove this thesis beyond a doubt. 

B. Chemical Remarks. 

Sulphurous acid (H 2SO 3) is unknown in the free state; it is likely 

to be contained in the solution of gaseous SO 2 in the water. 
Sulphurous acid forms primary and secondary sulphites; its salts 

are obtained by saturating a base with a watery solution of SO 2. 
If siilphurous acid is eliminated from its salts by the action of stronger 

acids, then it forms its anhydrid and water. 



FOREST PROTECTION 143 

Since a large number of calories of heat are set free by the union 
of S and O, in forming the SO 2, the anhydrid is a constant 
combination. 

SO 2 is readily reduced, by H2S, into water and sulphur. 

In watery solutions as well as in gaseous form SO 2 readily oxidises 
into SO 3, when exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, 
32 calories of heat being liberated by such oxidation. 

On the other hand, SO 3 at red heat dissolves into oxygen and SO 2. 
It stands to reasofi that with increasing distance from the 
smoke-stack the contents of the smoke are more SO 3 than SO 2. 

After von Schroeder, the gases of SO 3 are, without a doubt, less 
damaging to vegetation inhaling them than the gases of SO 2. 

Within the leaves SO 2 is very quickly converted, by oxidation, 
into SO 3. 

A few hours after gas-poisoning, only SO 3 (not SO 2) can be proven 
to be present within the leaves. 

Chemical analysis of leaves can only fix the territory infested in 
a random way. It can never be used as a measure of damage 
locally foimd. The damage can be assessed only according 
to the effects discernible with the naked eye. So-called "in- 
visible damages" have never been allowed by the Courts. 

The chemical analysis of leaves suspected to be poisoned deals 
only with an abnormal (unnatural) surplus of SO 3. 

All leaves contain, in nature, certain amounts of SO 3, the amoimts 
depending on the composition of the soil and on the species. 

Hence a comparative analysis of the leaves is absolutely necessary 
where it is intended to establish the influence of sulphurfumes 
on vegetation. This analysis must allow for the difference 
in the soil and the difference in the distance from the smelters. 
At the same time, the leaves examined must be taken from 
the same part of the tree and from the same side of the tree; 
further, the leaves must be in the same stage of development. 

After recent experiments the sulphuric contents in the leaves within 
.the lower part of the crown are much higher than the sulphuric 
contents in the upper part of the crown. 

The ashes obtained from trees growing in low lands are relatively 
poorer in SO 3 than the ashes from trees growing on mountains. 
Weak limbs show more SO 3 than strong limbs. 

The Merits of the Chemical Analysis. 

Science has not established any absolutely reliable means to 
connect death or injury of trees with a poisoning effect of 
SO 2 or SO 3 suspended in the air surroimding such trees. 



144 FOREST PROTECTION 

An anatomic — microscopic proof of injury due to SO 2 or SO 3 can- 
not be given (Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 93 and p. 37). 

A number of injurious influences (frost, heat, desiccation of soil, 
insects, fungi (Schroeder and Reuss, p. 110) fire, etc.) bring 
about, within the leaves and needles, identical or similar al- 
terations of the cell-structure (Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 12 ff). 

The consensus of opinion, amongst scientific specialists (R. Har- 
tig, p. 6; Winkler, p. 379; Schroeder and Reuss, p. 126) is to 
the effect that excessive contents of SOs within the leaves 
are not necessarily injurious. 

Injury due to sulphurfumes can be assumed only when there are 
at hand 

A. death visible to the naked eye; 

B. no other plausible cause of such death; 

C. contents of SO 3 in the leaves which are unmistak- 

ably increased by the reaction of the leaves 
and needles on sulphur fiunes. 

Unmistakably increased contents of SOi 
proven chemically within the leaves are 

a. not identical with abnormal con- 

tents; 

b. not such contents as exceed the av- 

erage contents of leaves within 
territories acknowledged to be 
beyond the reach of sulphur 
fumes; in other words, 

c. not particularly high percentages of 

SOs found within the leaves. 
General averages holding good 
for the contents of SOs within 
the leaves of healthy tfees do 
not exist (Haselhoff and L ndau, 
p. 67). 
If the contents of SO 3 found within the in- 
jured or uninjured leaves and needles of 
a given tree exceed those obtained by 
averaging a large number of analytic re- 
sults obtained from the tests of healthy 
leaves and needles, then and in such case 
the excess is frequently due to any one, 
or to a combination of the following 
causes: 
, (a) Soil: A soil naturally rich in 

SO 3 or irrigated with water 
containing SOs, produces 



FOREST PROTECTION 145 

leaves and needles sur- 
charged with SO 8. Such 
surcharge has no detrimen- 
tal influence on the state of 
health of the trees (Hasel- 
hoff and Lindau, p. 46, p. 
51, p. 55, p. 56). 

(b) Age : Old needles contain more 

SO 3 than yoimg needles. 
(Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 
67; Schroeder and Reuss, p. 
128). 

(c) Season: Young leaves contain 

more SO 3 than old leaves. 

(d) Position: On the same healthy- 

tree, the sulphur contents 
of the leaves vary accord- 
ing to the position of the 
leaves,which position might 
be 

at the base or at the 

top of the crown, 

' on the inside or on 

the outside of the 

crown. 

(e) Elevation: On the slope of a 

hill, the sulphur contents in 
the healthy leaves of the 
same tree-species exhibit 
variations depending on the 
elevation above sea-level 
(Schroeder and Reuss, p. 
126). 
The sulphur contents of given leaves and need- 
les are "unmistakably increased" by 
the reaction on sulphur fumes in all cases 
where it can be proven that none of the 
causes of increase above enumerated has 
or have brought about such increase. It 
is advisable, as a consequence, 

(1) to back the chemical analysis of 
the leaves by the chemical 
analysis of the soil on which 
such leaves were produced, 
so as to prove that an in- 



146 FOREST PROTECTION 

crease of leaf-sulphur is not 
due to an increase of soil- 
sulphur (Haselhoff and Lin- 
dau, p. 378); 

(2) to compare the analytic results 
of such leaves and needles 
only which were picked 
equally old; 

equally situated with- 
in the crown of the 
trees; 
equally situated with 
reference to eleva- 
tion. 
All experts agree that short, sudden, strong 
attacks by sulphur fumes are apt to be 
deadly; still, such attacks do not cause 
a VERY MABKED increase of SO 3 in the 
leaves. 
On the other hand, long-continued, but slight 
attacks by sulphur fumes result in a 
heavy increase of SO 3 in the leaves; 
still, such attacks do not cause a very 
marked injury to the trees (Wislicenus, 
Journal of Applied Chemistry, 1901, p. 
28). 
It is evident, consequently, that conclusions 
based on the chemical analysis of leaves 
and needles are apt to be rash; and that 
so-called chemical proofs miist be viewed 
with great precaution (Wieler, p. 380). 

D. Unreliability of Glass-Case Experiments. 

Experiments touching the poisonous effect of fumes made with 
plants placed in a glass case cannot be so telling as experi- 
ments made in the open, because: 

a. In the glass case, the gas is admitted from below so 

as to infest the lower surface of the leaves, which 
lower surface is known to be more subject to 
sulphur attacks than the upper surface. 

b. Sulphurous anhydrid, in statu nascendi, is increas- 

ingly active and pre-eminently corrosive. 

c. The discoloration of the leaves in nature differs from 

the discoloration usually observed in glass case 
experiments. 



FOREST PROTECTION 147 

d. In nature, SO 3 is largely mixed with SO 2, the former 
being less active than the latter. In the glass 
case, usually, only SO 2 is developed. 

E. Factors of Damase. 

Without a doubt, a slight admixture to the atmosphere of either 
SO 2 or SO 3 has a certain influence on vegetation; such in- 
fluence being irregularly proportioned to the amount of the 
admixture. 

After Stoeckhardt, the- one-millionth part of the air consisting of 
SO 2 results, in the course of time, in discoloration (335 fumi- 
gations discolor wet leaves in six weeks, dry leaves in eight 
weeks). 

The degree of injury depends on 

a. The continuity of the fumigation which is governed 
by the steadiness of the wind direction and which 
decreases, step by step, with increasing distance 
from the smelters. 

h. The sensitiveness of the plants which is governed 
by species, quality of the soil, preceding injury 
by fire, pasture or general neglect. 

c. The number of months per anniun during which the 

leaves show physical activity. In the case of 
hardwoods, this niimber is about 3J^, extend- 
ing from May 1 to August 15. 

d. Atmospheric conditions which may allow the gases 

to remain in bulk after emission from the smoke- 
stack, thus concentratmg the damage on such 
parts of the coimtry toward which the smoke 
happens to drift in hvlk. 
It has been proven by experiments as well as by the experience 
of all observers in natiire, that days of great atmospheric hu- 
midity, days on which fog forms and days following nights 
of heavy dew are particularly prolific in breeding acute dis- 
coloration or damage. On the other hand, very bright weather 
as well as heavy rains seem to minimize the damage by inten- 
- sive dilution and may prevent damage entirely. 
The toxic influence of sulphur gases might be considered either 
as an acute or as a chronic disease. Acute cases appear only 
in the near proximity of smelters where clouds of smoke kept 
in bulk under certain atmospheric constellations actually ex- 
ercise a corroding influence on the leaves. 
On the other hand, where the diluted gases are inhaled by the plants 
during a long number of days under the influence of a steady 
wind, there chronic discoloration and chronic disease will enter 
an appearance. 



148 FOREST PROTECTION 

F. Damage to the Soil. 

Conclusive experiments prove that soluble sulphuric salts of cop- 
per (like blue vitriol) fail to cause any damage to the plants, 
whether applied in the form of dust or in the form of watery- 
solution. Very concentrated solutions, however, cause cor- 
rosion; also dust falling on leaves wet with dew. 

Although the roots of plants are unable to refuse entrance to dam- 
aging liquids, it has been found that soluble salts of copper, 
when entering the soil, form at once an insoluble chemical 
combination with the bases of the soil. It is possible, how- 
ever, that poor quartz-sand, in the immediate proximity of 
the smelters, can be affected by soluble salts of copper. 

Insoluble salts of copper are, obviously, harmless in the soil. 

Absolute proof for or against soil-poisoning can be obtained only 
by planting seeds and seedlings into soil supposed to be poi- 
soned, after removal to a point far from the smelters. Plant- 
ing experiments made by Reuss have failed to prove any posion- 
ing of the soil, even under extreme conditions. 

The sulphuric acid contained in the soil is by no means propor- 
tioned to the damage appearing in the trees. On the other 
hand, trees stocking on sulphuric soil (e. g. gypsum soil) show 
invariably a high percentage of sulphuric acid within the leaves. 
It seems as if sulphuric acid obtained through the roots is 
innocuous, whilst sulphuric acid inhaled through the leaves 
is noxious. 

If by condensation of the gases at the smelters the atmosphere 
is purified, the soil in the proximity of the smelters is as ready 
to produce as ever. In other words, there is no such thing 
as irreparable damage caused by smelterfumes. 

Experiments with plants watered with a solution of SO 2 prove 
conclusively that no damage results from such watering. On 
the contrary! After Freytag, plants watered with a solu- 
tion of SO 3 have shown better yields than those which were 
not watered with SO 2. 

In other words, sulphuric acid has a chance to become a blessing 
to agriciilture, especially where the soil contains insoluble 
phosphates; and there is, decidedly, no such thing as the "poi- 
soning of the soil" through SO 2 or SO 3, applied in gaseous 
form or liquid form, as salt or acid. 

G. Damage to Farm Crops and Fruit Trees. 

Within the vegetation economically used, farm crops suffer less 
from fumes than trees. In the case of farm crops potatoes 
seem to be least sensitive, cereals follow next, whilst legumi- 
nous plants are more sensitive. 



FOREST PROTECTION 149 

Farming can be carried on remuneratively in closer proximity of 
the smelters than forestry. Obviously, in the case of annual 
plants, there is. no cumulative influence of SO 2 due to many 
a year's exposure. 

The fact that farm crops are more resistant to smoke than forest 
crops may be explained ,also, by the higher reproductive power 
of the former and by the greater height of the latter, the leaves 
of which are exposed to more concentrated gases of SO 2. 

In case of fruit trees, mulberries seem to be least sensitive; then 
follow apples, pears, peaches, plums, with cherries as the most 
sensitive fruit trees at the rear end. 

Wherever fruit trees are well attended by cultivation and by fer- 
tilizing, the damage by sulphur fumes is minimized. 

The "floral organs" of the fruit trees seem to be less affected by 
smoke than the "pulmonary organs," which means to say 
the fruiting of the trees is not badly interfered with by SO, 
and SO 3. 

H, Damage to Forests. 

The forest trees, according to species and individuality, exhibit 
a very varying degree of sensitiveness to the influence of sul- 
phur fumes. The degree of liability to damage is in no way 
proportioned to the readiness with which the trees inhale sul- 
phuric fimies. For instance, the conifers are more affected 
by sulphur fumes than are the hardwoods. Still, exposed to 
the same atmosphere charged with sulphuric fumes, the coni- 
fers will inhale smaller quantities of toxic gases than the hard- 
woods. 

The power of resistence which the various species show to the in- 
fluence of sulphur fumes is, on the other hand, directly pro- 
portioned to the power of reproduction (power of recovery) 
which the various species show. It is obvious that this power 
of recovery is particularly good in hardwoods, which must 
recover, every spring, from the natural loss of foliage sustained 
in the preceding fall. 

In the case of broad-leaved species, any loss of vital organs is readily 
made up, whilst in the case of conifers the reproductive power 
is comparatively low. 

Amongst the conifers, those which retain their needles for a num- 
ber of years are more apt to suffer from sulphuric fumes than 
those which retain their needles for one or two years only. 

Inasmuch as the resistence which the trees offer to injury by sul- 
phurfumes is proprotioned to their power of reproduction, 
and inasmuch as this power of reproduction largely depends 
on the fertility of the soil, it is obvious that all species suc- 
cumb on impoverished soil more rapidly than on good soil. 



150 FOREST PROTECTION 

This observation is backed by the facts exhibited near Ducktown, 
Tenn., where the shade trees in the gardens seem to do re- 
markably well in close proximity to the smelters. 

Ceteris paribxis, the following schedule has been arranged as the 
result of investigations for the trees in the Ducktown region 
having over 7" diameter, the trees most easily kUIed by SO, 
being placed at the top of the schedule: 

Susceptibility to Actual Injury. 

White Pine 

Hemlock 

Scrub Pine 

Pitch Pine 

Birch 

Chestnut 

Hickory 

Oaks 

Yellow Poplar 

Maple 

Black Gum 
This schedule tallies well with the schedule given by European 

authors for closely related species. 
If a similar schedule is formed according to the ease of discolor- 
ation, entirely different results are obtained: 

Susceptibility to Discoloration. 

VERY easily medium NOT APT TO BE 

discolored discolored discolored 

Black Oak Poplar Black Gmn 

Hickory White Oak White Pine 

Scarlet Oak Chestnut Oak Maple 

Chestnut Post Oak Pitch Pine 

Spanish Oak Hemlock 

Noteworthy it is that the power of resistance to fumes is more 
increased by the power of reproduction than decreased by • 
the sensitiveness of the leaves. 

In nature, wherever grave deviations from exact schedules of sen- 
sitiveness are found, it stands to reason that other influences, 
aside from sulphurfumes, are simultaneously responsible for 
the death or for the discoloration of the trees. 

The best time for any observations in the forest is the late sum- 
mer or early fall (the time between August 15 and October 1). 

Sulphurfumes cannot be held responsible for the local death of 
trees within a "smoke region," 

(1) if species known to be more sensitive are less affected 
than species known to be more resistent; 



FOREST PROTECTION 151 

(2) if tall specimens are no more affected than short 

specimens; or if the trees die from below; 

(3) if the dying trees are affected with a fungus-disease 

(e. g. White Pine blight and Chestnut blight) 
or an insect disease causing the death of the 
trees outside the smoke region; 

(4) if death and discoloration are confined to one species 

only; 

(5) if the owner of the forests, allowing indiscriminate 

logging, or allowing forest fires to rage, is guilty 
of contributory negligence; 

(6) if discoloration is caused by late frost, or draught, 

or leaf fungi; 

(7) if the death rate within the smoke region is no greater 

than the death rate without, under otherwise 
equal conditions (of geology, soil-fertility, as- 
pect, forest fires, desiccation, storms, insects, 
fungi and prior treatment of forests); 

(8) if dying and living trees are normally covered with 

tree mosses, algae and lichens; 

(9) if the death rate at the windward edge of the for- 

ests is not larger than the death rate in the in- 
terior; 

(10) if the size of the annual rings of accretion is not ab- 

normally small; 

(11) if there are at hand, in the affected region, other 

plausible causes of discoloration and of death. 

1. Preventive Measures. 

1. In the source of damage: 

(a) Dilution of fumes 

by emission into the upper atmosphere from 
mountain tops or from high smoke-stacks; 
by accelerated conversion of SO 2 into Sd; 

by artificial draught increasing the rapidity of 

dilution; 
by manufacture of sulphuric acid. 

(b) Other means suggested: 

by running smelter plants at night (possible in 
pygmean operations only); 

by discontinuing operations in May, Jvme and 
July (impossible where himdreds of workmen 
depend on continued employment); 



152 FOREST PROTECTION 

by smelting in the regions where the hardwoods 
prevail; where the forest has little value; on 
islands; in deserts or prairies. 
2. In woodlands adjoining: 

(a) Conversion of woodlands into farms or pastures; OJ 

of high forest into low forest; 

(b) Cutting affected and dying trees; 

(c) Maintaining the fertility and, notably, the water con- 

tents of the soil through protection from fire and 
by keeping a dense undergrowth; 

(d) Avoidance of partial logging. 



I. Index to Malefactors. 



Acanthocinus nodbsus Fab., 48. 

Acanthocinus obsoletus Oliv., 48. 

Acmceo pulchella Hbst., 57. 

Aecidium pint, 119. 

Aegeria acerni Clem., 88. 

AgaricacecB, 117. 

Agaricus melletis, 114, 119. 

Agrilus anxius Gory, 64, 65. 

Agrilus bilineatus Web., 67, 68. 

Agrilus otiosus Say, 73. 

alder 111. . 

Allorhina nitida Linn., 62. 

Ambrosia, 114. 

Ametabola, 21. 

Ampelopsis, 112. 

Andromeda, 111. 

animals, 12< 

Anisota rubicunda Fab., 88. 

Anisota senatoria S. & A., 85. 

Anisota stigma Fab., 85. 

Apatela americana Harr., 86, 88. 

Aphididce, 21, 29, 34, 101, 102, 103, 

105, 106. 
Aphrophora paralella Say, 101. 
Apion nigrum Hbst., 73. 
Arceuthobium cryptopoda, 126. 
Arceuthobium ocddentale, 126. 
Arceuthobium pusiUum, 126. 
Archips fervidana Clem., 85. 
ArctiidcB, 21, 77, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88. 
Arhopalus fulminans Fab., 43, 67, 

68. 
Ascomycetes, 116, 118. 
Asemum mcestum Hald., 43, 48, 50. 
Asemum nitidum Lee, 53, 54. 
Asilidce, 20. 

Aspidiotus pernidosus Comst., 104. 
Aspidioius tenebricosus Comst., 106. 
Asterolecanium variolosum Ratz., 

104. 
Attelabus arialis, Web., 62. 
Automeris io Fab., 88. 
Azalea, 112. 
Balaninus, 67. 

Balaninus nasicus Say, 63, 68. 
Balaninus probosddus Fab., 67. 
Balaninus rectus Say, 63, 67. 
Basidiomycetes, 117. 
Basilona imperialis Dru., 77, 82. 
beaver, 18. 
beech. 111. 

Bellamira scalaris Say, 65. 
birds, 18. 



blackberry, 109, 111, 112. 

BlastobasidoE, 85. 

blueberry, 109. 

bluejay, 18. 

boar, wild, 15. 

Bombycidce, 21. 

Bostrichidce, 29, 34. 

box-elder, 109. 

Brachys ceruginosa Gory, 66. 

Brmthidoe, 21, 29, 33, 57, 66, 67, 68, 

69. 
BuprestidcB, 21, 29, 32, 43, 48, 49, 

50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 63, 65, 66, 

67, 68, 73, 74. 
Buprestis apricans Hbst., 48. 
Buprestis aurulenta Linn., 43, 48, 

50, 56. 
Callidium cereum Newm., 67. 
Callidium antennatum Newm., 48, 

61. 
Callidium janihinum Lee, 59. 
Callipterus ulmifolii Monell, 105. 
Callosamia promethea Dru., 90. 
Camponotus herculeanus Linn., 97. 
Carabidce, 20. 

Carphoborus, 44, 47, 51, 54. 
caterpillars, Lepidopterous, 34. 
Catocala spp., 85. 
Ceddomyia carycecola O. S., 100. 
Ceddomyia clavula Beuten, 100. 
Ceddomyia holotricha O. S., 100. 
Ceddomyia liriodendri O. S., 100. 
Ceddomyia niveipila O. S., 100. 
Ceddomyia pilulce Walsh, 100. 
Ceddomyia pinirigidce Pack., 99. 
Ceddomyia poculum O. S., 100. 
Ceddomyia rednicola O. S., 99. 
Ceddomyia tubicola O. S., 100. 
Ceddomyia tulipifera O. S., 100. 
Ceddomyiidce, 21, 29, 99, 100. 
Cedar apples, 119. 
Cerambyddce, 21, 29, 32, 33, 35, 43, 

45, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 

58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 

69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76. 
Ceratocampidce, 77, 82, 85, 88. 
Ceratogr aphis pusillus Kby., 48. 
Ceratomia amyntor Geyer, 86. 
Ceratomia catalpce Boisd., 91. 
Ceratomia undulosa Walk., 90. 
Ceratostomella pilifera, 123. 
Chaitophorus aceris Linn., 106. 
Chalddoidea, 20. 

153 



154 



FOREST PROTECTION 



Chermes abietis Linn., 102. 
Cherm.es pinicortids Fitch., 101. 
Chermes sibiricus Chold., 102. 
Chermes strobi Hart., 101. 
Chion cinctus Dru., 63, 67, 68. 
Chionaspis americana Johns, 105. 
Chionaspis pinifolice Fitch., 101. 
chinquapin, 110, 111, 112. 
chipmunk, 16. 
Chalciphora virginiensis Dru., 43, 

48, 50. 
Chramesus icorice Lee, 63. 
Chrysobothris dentipes Germ., 48. 
Chrysobothris femorata Fab., 63, 67, 

68, 74. 
Chrysobothris Q-signata Say, 65. 
Chrysomela scalaris Lee, 75, 
Chrysomelidce, 21, 29, 48, 63, 68, 69, 

73, 75. 
Cercopidce, 101. 
Cicada, 104, 106. 
Cicadidce, 21, 30, 35, 104, 106. 
Cicindelidoe, 20. 
Cimbex americana Leach, 97. 
Citheronia regalis Fab., 82. 
Clematis, 112. 
Clerida, 20. 
climbers, 112. 
Coccidce, 21, 29, 34, 101, 102, 103, 

104, 105, 106. 
Cocdnellidce, 20. 
Cochlidiidoe, 85. 
Coleoptera, 20, 21, 38, 43-76. 
Colopha ulmicola Fitch., 105. 
Colydiidce, 20. 
Componotus pennsylvanicus Deg., 

94 
Conotrachelus elegans Say, 63. 
Conotrachelus juglandis Lee, 62. 
Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst., 63. 
Convolvulus, 110. 
Corthylus columbianus Hpk., 66, 68, 

70. 
Corthylus punctatissimus Zm., 74. 
Cossidce, 21, 29, 85, 86, 87, 88. 
Cotalpa lanigera Linn., 64, 68. 
cotton woods, 111. 
Crepidodera rufipes Linn., 73. ' 
Cressonia juglandis S. & A., 82. 
cross-bills, 18. 
crows, 18. 

Cryphalus, 50, 55, 56. 
Cryptorhynchus, 67. 
Cryptorhynchus parochus Hbst., 62. 
Crypturgus atomus Lee, 43, 50. 
Crypturgus pusillus, 48. 
Curculionidce, 21, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 



37, 43, 44, 48, 50, 51, 56, 57, 62, 

63, 67, 68, 69, 73. 
Curius dentatus Newm., 57. 
Cynips spp., 96. 
Cyllene picta Dru., 63. 
Cyllene robince Forst., 73, 114, 121, 
Cynipidce, 30, 96. w;_-- i^.;^ 

Cynipoidea, 21, 29, ' ""'', 

damping-off, 120. ;\; . ^^j 

Dantana angusii G. & R., 85. , 
Dantana integerrima Dru., 82. 
Dantana ministra G. & R., 82, 83, 

85, 89. 
deer, 15. 

Dendroctonus, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49. 
Dendroctonus approximatus Dtz., 47. 
Dendroctonus brevicomis Lee, 44, 

47. 
Dendroctonus engelmanni Hopk., 51. 
Dendroctonus fontalis, 31, 43, 48, 50, 

114. 
Dendroctonus monticolce Hopk., 44, 

45, 46, 47. 
Dendroctonus obesus Mann., 48, 51. 
Dendroctonus piceaperda Hopk., 31, 

50. 
Dendroctonus ponder osce Hopk., 47. 
Dendroctonus pseudotsu^a Hopk., 54, 
Dendroctonus similis Lee, 49, 54. 
Dendroctonus terebrans Oliv., 43, 48. 
Dendroctonus valens Lee, 43, 46, 47, 

48. 
Diapheromera femorata Say, 108. 
Diaporthe parasitica Murrill, 120. 
Dicer ca lurida Fab., 63. 
Dicer ca obscura Fab., 63, 74. 
Dioryctria reniculella Grote, 78. 
Diptera, 20, 21, 38, 99, 100. 
Discomycetes, 116, 118. 
dogwood, 110, 111, 112. 
Dolurgus pumilis Mann., 51. 
doves, 18. 

Drepanosiphum acerifolii Thos., 106. 
drought, 114. 
Dryocartes, 43, 50. 
Dryocartes affaber Mann., 51. 
Dryocartes autoyraphus Ratz., 50. 
Dryocartes eichhoffi Hopk., 65. 
Dryocartes granicollis Lee, 50. 
Dryophilus, 59. 

Eburia quadrigeminata Say, 63, 76. 
Ecdytolopha insiticiana Zell., 87. 
Echinodontium tinctorium, 123. 
Elaphidion villosum Fab., 63, 68, 74. 
Elateridoe, 20, 21, 30. 
Enarmonia bracteatans Fern., 77. 
Enarmonia caryana Fitch., 82. 



INDEX TO MALEFACTORS 



155 



Epargyreus tityrus Fab., 87. 
Eraunis tiliaria Harr., 89. 
Er gates spiculatus Lee, 47, 48. 
Ericacoe, 110, 117. 
erosion, 138. 

Endocimus mannerheimii Boh., 57. 
Euclea delphinii Boisd., 85. 
Eulecanium tulipiferce Cook, 105. 
Eulia politana Haw., 77. 
Eunomos magnarius Guen., 84. 
Euproctis chrysorrhea Linn., 85. 
Eupsalis minuta Dru., 57, 66,' 67, 

68, 69. 
Euschausia argentata Pack., 77. 
Euvanessa antiopa Linn., 86. 
Evetria comstockiana Fern., 77. 
Evetria frustrana Comst., 77. 
Evetria rigidana Fern., 77. 
Exoascece, 117. 
Exobasidium vaccinii, 117. 
ferns. 111,, 112. 
finches, 18. 
fire, 8, 114. 
Formiddce, 94, 97. 
Formicoidea, 20. 
frost, 127. 
fungi, 113, 115. 
Galerucella luteola Mull., 69. 
Gaurotes cyanipennis Say, 62. 
Gelechiidce, 77, 78. 
Geometridce, 78, 84, 86, 89. 
Glyptoscelis pubescens Fab., 48. 
Gnathotrichus, 47. 
Gnathotrichus materiarius Fitch., 43, 

48, 50. 
Gnathotrichus sulcatus Lee, 53, 54, 

55, 59. 
Goes oculatus Lee, 63. 
Goes pulchra Hald., 63. 
Goes pulverulentus Hid., 66. 
Goes tesselata Hald., 68. 
Goes tigrina DeG., 63, 68. 
Gossyparia spuria Mod., 105. 
grapevine, 109, 110. 
Graphisurus fasdatus DeG., 68. 
groimd-hog, 18. 
grouse, 18. 
Gryllidce, 30, 36, 107. 
Gryllotalpa borealis Burm., 107. 
Gryllus spp., 107. 
gum, black, 109, 110, 111, 112. 
Gymnosporangium, 119. 
Halesia {Mohrodendron) , 109, 111, 

116. 
Halisidota caryce Harr., 82. 
Halisidota maculata Harr., 86. 



Halisidota tesselaris S. & A., 85, 86, 

88 
hazei, 112. 

hazel, witch, 109, 110. 
heat, 132. 
heather, 109. 
hedge-hog, 18. 
Hemerocampa leucostigma S. & A., 

86, 87, 88, 89. 
Hemileuca maia Dru., 85. 
Hemimetabola, 21. 
Hemiptera, 20, 21, 38, 101-106. 
Hepialidce, 84, 87. 
Herpotrichia, 114. 
Hesperidce, 21. 

Heterocampa bilineata Pack., 89. 
Holcocera glandulella Riley, 85. 
Homoptera lunata Dru., 88. 
huckleberry. 111. 
Hylastes cavernosus Zimm., 43. 
Hylastes porosus Er., 47. 
Hylastinus rufipes Eichh., 69. 
HyleccBtus americanus Harr., 68, 
Hyleccetus lugubris Say, 67. 
Hylesinus, 53, 54, 55. 
Hylesinus aculeatus Say, 76. 
Hylesinus granulatus Lee, 55. 
Hylesinus nebulosus Lee, 54. 
Hylobius pales Hbst., 43, 48. 
Hylotrupes amethystinus Lee, 59. 
Hylotrupes ligneus Fab., 61. 
Hylurgops glabratus Zeff . , 43. 
Hylurgops pinifex Fitch., 48. 
Hylurgops rugipennis Mann., 51. 
Hylurgops subcostulatus Mann., 44, 

45, 46, 47. 
Hymenomycetes, 117, 118. 
Hymenoptera, 20, 21, 38, 92-98. 
Hyphantria cunea Dru., 87, 90. 
Hyphantria textor Harr., 85. 
Hypoderma strobicola, 120. 
Hysterium pinastri, 119. 
Ichneumonoidea, 20. 
Incurvaria acerifoliella Fitch., 88. 
insects, 20. 
Isoptera, 107. 

Ithycerus noveboracensis Fst., 68. 
Janus integer Nort., 95. 
Kaliosphinga dohrnii Tischb., 95. 
Kaliosphinga ulmi Sund., 97. 
Kalmia, 109, 111, 112. 
Kermes, 104. 

Lachnus strobi Fitch., 101. 
Lagoa crispata Pack., 85. 
Lapara bombycoides Walk., 77. 
Lapara coniferarum S, & A., 77. 



156 



FOREST PROTECTION 



LasiocampidcB, 85, 88. 

Lecanium, 101, 103. 

Lecanium nigrofasciatum Prg., 106. 

Lenzites sepiaria, 123. 

Lepidoptera, 21, 29, 34, 38, 77-91. 

Leptostylus aculiferus Say, 70. 

Leptura canadensis Fab., 50, 52. 

Leucotermes flavipes KolL, 107. 

Liparidce, 21, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89. 

Lithocolletes hamadryella Clem., 85. 

Locustidce, 21, 108. 

Lophyrus abbotii Leach, 92. 

Lophyrus lecontei Fitch, 92. 

Lyctidce, 29, 34. 

Lyctus spp., 63, 76. 

Lyda, 92. 

LygoBonematus erichsonii Hart., 93. 

Lymexilonidce, 29, 33. 

Lymexylidce, 67, 68. 

Lymexylon sericeum Harr., 67, 68. 

Magdalis armicollis Say, 69. 

Magdalis barbata Say, 69. 

Magdalis olyra Herbst., 66. 

Malacosoma disstria Hubn., 85, 88. 

Mallodon dasystomus Say, 63, 68. 

Mallodon melanopus Linn., 68. 

man, 7. 

Mantidce, 20. 

maple, 111. 

Mecas inornata Say, 64. 

Megalopygidce, 85. 

Melandryidce, 50, 56. 

Melanophila, 49. 

Melanophila drummondi Kby., 63, 

54. 
Melanophila fulvoguttata Harr., 52. 
Melasoma lapponica Linn., 64. 
Melasoma scripta Fab., 64. 
Metabola, 21. 
mice, 16. 

Microcentrum laurifolium Linn., 108. 
Mohrodendron {Halesia), 116. 
Monohammus confusor Kby., 48, 

50. 
Monohammus scutellatus Say, 43, 45, 

48. 
Mycelophilidoe, 100. 
Mytilaspis, 101, 103. 
Myxomycetes, 118. 
Nectria, 116. 
Nematus, 34. 
Nematus erichsonii, 35. 
Nematus integer Say, 94. 
Neoclytus caprcea Say, 76. 
Neoclytus erythrocephalus Fab., 57, 

71, 74, 76. 
Neophasia menapia Feld., 77, 79. 



Neuroptera, 20. 

Noctuidce, 21, 29, 36, 85, 86, 88. 
Notodontidce, 82, 83, 85, 89. 
Nototophus antiqua Linn., 85. 
Nymphalidoe, 86. 
oak, black jack, 110. 
Odontota dorsalis Thunb., 73. 
Odontota rubra Web., 75. 
Odontota scutellaris Oliv., 73. 
Oecanthus pini Beut., 107. 
Oeme rigida Say, 57. 
Oncideres cingulata Say, 63, 68. 
Orthoptera, 20, 21, 38, 107, 108. 
Orthosoma brunneum DeG., 48. 
Pachylobius picivorus Germ., 43, 48. 
Pachyta monticola Rand, 56. 
Paleacrita vernata Peck, 86. 
Pantographia limata G. & R., 89. 
PapilionidcB, 21. 

Paralechia pinifoliella Cham., 77. 
Parharmonia pini, Vrell., 77. 
pasturage, 12. 

Paururus hopkinsi Ashm., 92. 
Paururus pinicola Ashm., 92. 
Pemphigus tessellatus Fitch., 103. 
Peridermium strobi, 119. 
Peronosporece, 116, 117. 
Peziza, 117. 
Phasmidce, 21, 108. 
Phenacoccus acericola King, 106. 
Philedia punctomacularia, 78. 
Phlarosinu^, 57. 

Phlarosinus cupressi Hopk., 58, 60. 
Phlarosinus dentatus Say, 61. 
Phlarosinus punctatus Lee, 59, 60. 
Phlarosinus sequoice Hopk., 58, 59. 
Phoradendron flavescens, 126. 
Phycitidce, 30, 37, 77, 78. 
Phycomycetes, 116. 
Phylloxera pallida Linn., 64. 
Phymatodes decussatus Lee, 58. 
Phymatodes variabilis Linn., 64. 
Physcenemum andrece Hald., 57. 
Phytophtora omnivora, 116. 
Pieridce, 77, 79. 

Pinipestis zimmermanni Grte., 77. 
pigeons, 18. 
Pissodes, 44. 51. 
Pissodes dubius Rand, 56. 
Pissodes strobi Peck, 43, 48, 50. 
Pityogenes, 43, 45, 55. 
Pityogenes carinulatus Lee, 47. 
Pityogenes cariniceps, 47. 
Pityogenes plagiatus Lee, 48. 
Pityophthorus, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 

50, 55, 65. 
Pityophthorus cariniceps Lee, 50. 



INDEX TO MALEFACTORS 



157 



Pityophthorus confinis Lee, 47. 
PUyophthorus minutissimus Zimm., 

68. 
Pityophthorus nitidulus Mann., 45, 

51, 54. 
Pityophthorus pruinosiis Eichh., 68. 
Pityophthorus pubipennis Lee, 68. 
Pityophthorus puncticollis Lee, 45, 

47, 51. 
Pityophthorus guerdperda Schw., 68. 
Plaqionotus speciosus Say, 74. 
Platypus, 43, 53, 54. 
Platypus compositus Say, 57, 67, 

68. 
Polygonia interrogationis Fab., 86. 
Polygraphus rufipennis Kby., 50. 
Polyporacece, 117. 
Polyporvs annosus, 120. 
Polyporus applanatus, 122. 
Polyporus betulinus, 122. 
Polyporus carneus, 121. 
Polyporus catalpce, 121. 
Polyporus fomentarius, 122. 
Polyporus fraxinophilus, 121. 
Polyporus fulvus , 122. 
Polyporus igniarius, 122. 
Polyporus juniperinus, 121, 
Polyporus libocedris, 122. 
Polyporus nigricans, 122. 
Polyporus obtusus, 122. 
Polyporus pergamenus, 122. 
Polyporus pinicola, 122, 123. 
Polyporus ponderosus, 123. 
Polyporus schweinitzii, 121. 
Polyporus sguamosus, 122. 
Polyporus sulfur eus, 122. 
Polyporus rimosus, 114, 121. 
Polyporus versicolor, 121. 
porcupine, 18. 
Porthetria dispar, Linn., 85. 
Prionoxystus robinice Peck., 85, 87. 
Prionus laticollis Dru., 48, 64 67 
68. ' ' . 

Proctotrypoidea, 20. 

Pseudococcus aceris Goeff., 106. 

Psychidce, 81. 

Psyllidce, 29, 34. 

Pterocyclon fasdatum Say, 57. 

Pterocyclon mali Fitch., 50, 57, 66 

68, 72. 
Pteronus ventralis Say, 95. 
Ptilinus ruficornis Say, 74. 
Ptinidce, 21, 29, 32, 34. 
PtininidcB, 47, 59, 63, 74, 76. 
Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rathv 

106. *^ 

PyralidoB, 89. 



Pyrenomycetes, 116, 118. 
Recurvaria obliquestrigella Cham., 78. 

ReduviidcB, 20. 

Rhagium lineatum Oliv., 43, 48, 50. 

Rhizococcus, 101, 102. 

Rhododendron, 112. 

sand, shifting, 139. 

Saperda, 72. 

Saperda calcarata Say, 64. 

Saperda concolor Lee, 64. 

Saperda discoidea Fab., 63. 

Saperda tridentata Oliv., 69. 

Saperda vestita Say, 75. 

Saturniidce, 82, 83, 85, 88, 89, 90. 

ScarabcddoB, 21, 29, 36, 62, 68, 76. 

Schizoneura imbricator Fitch., 103. 

Sciara ocellata O. S., 100. 

Scolytidce, 21, 29, 31, 33, 35, 43-61, 
63, 65-70, 72, 74-76. 

Scolytus, 50, 55. 

Scolytus prceceps Lee, 55. 

Scolytus quadrispinosus Say, 63. 

Scolytus rugulosus Ratz., 72. 

Scolytus subscaber Lee, 55. 

Scolytus unispinosus Lee, 49, 54. 

Schizoneura americana Riley, 105. 

Schizophyllum commune, 123. 

sedge, broom, 16. 

sedge-grass, 109. 

Selandria diluta Cress., 96. 

Serica trociformis Burm., 68. 

Serropalpus barbatus Schall., 50, 56. 

Sesiidce, 29, 77, 80, 88. 

Sinoxylon basilare Say, 63. 

Siriddce, 29, 92, 94, 96, 98. 

sleet, 134. 

smilax, 109. 

snow, 134. 

Sphingidce, 77, 82, 86, 90, 91. 

Sphinx Kalmice S. & A., 90. 

squatters, 7. 

squirrels, 16. 

Sthenopis argenteomaculatus Harr., 

84. 
storm, 114, 136. 
sulphur fumes, 141. 
sunscald, 133. 

Symmerista albifrons S. & A., 85. 
Syrphidce, 20, 21. 
Systena marginalis 111., 63. 
Telea polyphemus Cram., 82, 83, 85, 

88, 89. 
Tenthredinidce, 29, 34, 92, 93, 94, 

95, 96, 97. 
Termitidce, 107. 
Tetr opium dnnamopterum Kby., 50. 



158 



FOREST PROTECTION 



Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis Haw. 

81. 
Tibicen septendedm Linn., 104, 106. 
Tillandsia usneoides, 126. 
Tineidce, 29, 35, 85, 88. 
Tomicus, 45, 50, 55. 
Tomicus avulsus Eichh., 43, 48. 
Tomicus halsameus Lee, 50, 56. 
Tomicus cacographus Lee, 43, 48, 

50. 
Tom,icus ccelatus Eichh., 43, 48. 
Tomicus calligraphus Germ., 43, 47, 

48. 
Tomicus condnnus Mann., 51. 
Tomicus confusus Lee, 47. 
Tomicus integer Eichh., 46, 47. 
Tomicus latidens Lee, 44. 
Tomicus m,onticola Hopk., 44. 
Tomicus oregoni Eichh., 47. 
Tom,icus pini Say, 43, 46, 48, 50. 
Tortriddoe, 29, 30, 35, 37, 77, 78, 

82, 85, 87. 
Tortrix fum/iferana Clem., 78. 
Tortrix querdfoliana Fitch., 85. 
Trachinidce, 20. 
Tram,etes pini, 120. 
Trametes radidperda, 114, 120. 
Tremex columba Linn., 96, 98. 
Trichosphceria, 114. 
Trogositidce, 20. 
Trypodendron, 65. 
Trypodendron bivittatum Mannh., 

48, 50, 51, 52. 
Trypodendron fasdatum Say, 74. 
Trypodendron mali Fitch., 74. 
turkey, wild, 18. 



Uredinece, 117. 

Urocerus abdominalis Harr., 94. 
Urocerus albicornis Fab., 94. 
Urocerus flavipennis Kby., 94. 
Urographis fasdatus Horn., 62, 63, 

67, 68, 71, 74. 
Usnea barbata, 126. 
Ustilaginece, 117. 
Vacdnium, 112. 

Vespamima sequoia Hy. Edw., 77, 

80. 
Vespoidea, 20. 
Vitis, 112. 
weeds, 109. 
windstorm, 136. 
woodchuck, 18. 
woodpeckers, 18. 
Xyleborus, 57. 

Xyleborus, ccelatus Zimm., 50, 74. 
Xyleborus celsus Eichh., 63, 68. 
Xyleborus dispar Fab., 70. 
Xyleborus fuscatus Eichh., 68. 
Xyleborus obesus Lee, 52, 68, 74. 
Xyleborus politus Say, 50, 66, 74. 
Xyleborus pubesceus Zimm., 48, 67, 

74. 
Xyleborus saxeseni Ratz., 52, 54, 

63, 64, 66, 68, 72, 74. _ 
Xyleborus tachygraphus Zimm., 70, 

74. 
Xylochinus, 50, 56. 
Xylotrechus colonus Fab., 63, 67, 

68, 74. 

Xylotrechus undulatus Say, 52, 54, 

55. . ^ 

Zeuzerafpyrina Linn., 86, 87, 88. 
ZygoenidcB, 21.^ 



I 



II. Index of Species Affected. 



Abies balsamea, 56. 

Abies concolor, 55. 

Abies fraseri, 56. 

Abies grandis, 55. 

Acer, 74, 88, 98, 100, 106. 

Alnus, 103, 111. 

Alnus glutinosa, 95. 

Arbor-vitse, 121. 

ash, white, 121, 122, 133. 

basswood, 18. 

beech, 18, 121, 122, 129, 133. 

Betula, 65, 83. 

birch, 18, 122, 150. 

black gum, 129, 150. 

buffalo-nut, 16. 

Castanea, 67, 84. 

Catalpa, 91, 121, 129. 

cedar, incense, 122. \ 

Chamcecyparis, 61. . 

Chamcecyparis lawsoniana, 60. 

cherry, 16, 122, 128. 

chestnut, 19, 109, 120, 129, 133, 150. 

conifers, 107, 119, 120, 122. - 

Cornus florida, 100. 

Cottonwood, 18, 122, 129, 139. 

Cratcegus, 16. 

currant, 119. 

cypress, bald, 114, 122. 

Douglas fir, 121, 129. 

Fagus, 66, 103. 

fir, 16, 17^120. 

fir, Douglas, 121. 

fir, red, 123. 

Fraxinus, 76, 90. 

hazel, 18. 

hemlock, (see Tsuga), 18, 121, 123, 

131, 150. 
hemlock, western, 121, 123. 
hickories, 17, 129y 135, 150. 
Hicoria, 63, 82, 100, 103.^ 
Incense cedar, 122. 
Juglans, 62, 103. 
Juniperus, 81. 
Juniper us virginiana, 61. 
Kalmia, 18. 
Larix, 93. 

Larix occidentalis, 49. 
linden, 16. 
Liquidambar, 71. 
Liriodendron, 70, 100, 105, 129. 
locust, 16, 17, 114, 121, 135. 



maple, 16, 18, 122, 128, 129, 150. 

oak, 16, 17, 19, 121, 122, 129, 150. 

oak, chestnut, 128, 150. 

oak, scarlet, 18, 150. 

oak, white, 18, 150. 

Picea, 50, 51, 78, 94, 102. 

Picea engelmanni, 51. 

Picea pungens, 16. 

Picea sitchensis, 16, 51. 

pine, 16, 120, 135, 139. 

pine, seedlings, 119, 131. 

pine, white, 119, 131, 133, 150. 

pine, yellow, 109. 

Pinus, 76, 92, 99, 101. 

Pinus cembra, 119. 

Pinus echinata, 16, 48, 129, 130. 

Pinus flexilis , 45. 

Pinus jeffreyi, 47. 

Pinus lambertiana, 44, 129. 

Pinus monticola, 45, 121. 

Pinus murrayana, 46. 

Pinus palustris, 48. 

Pinus ponderosa, 47, 123, 129. 

Pinus resinosa, 48. 

Pinus rigida, 48, 129, 150. 

Pinus strobus, 43, 120, 129, 130, 131. 

Pinus tceda, 48. 

poplar, 122. 

poplar, yellow, 109, 115, 135, 150. 

Populus, 64, 95. 

Pseudotsuga, 54. 

Pyrularia, 16. 

Pyrus, 72. 

Quercus, 68, 85, 96, 100, 103. 

red-cedar, 18, 119, 121. 

Rhododendron, 18. 

Ribes, 119. 

Robinia, 73, 87. 

Sequoia, 58, 80. 

Sequoia sempervirens , 123. 

spruce, (see Picea), 18, 123, 129, 

130, 131, 133. 
Taxodium distichum, 57. 
Tilia, 75, 89. 
Tsuga, 79. 

Tsuga canadensis, 52. 
Tsuga heterophylla, 53. 
Thuja gigantea, 59. 
Ulmus, 69, 86, 97, 105. 
walnut, 122, 128, 129, 130. 
willow, 139. 



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